Sign Clusters and Compensation Patterns

Overhead Squat Assessment Sign Cluster: Asymmetrical Weight Shift (AWS)

Research on Asymmetrical Weight Shift

Deciding Which Dysfunction to Address

Overhead Squat Assessment Sign Cluster: Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)

Research on Lower Extremity Dysfunction

Overhead Squat Assessment Sign Cluster: Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dsyfunction (LPHCD)

Research on Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction

Overhead Squat Assessment Sign Cluster: Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)

Research on Upper Body Dysfunction

Overhead Squat Assessment Sign Cluster: Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction (SIJD)

Research on Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction

Overhead Squat Assessment: Sign Clusters and Compensation Patterns

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Overhead Squat Assessment (Part 2): Sign Clusters and Compensation Patterns

All fitness, performance, and rehabilitation programs should start with an <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>. The goal of <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a> is to refine exercise and technique recommendations, with the intent of improving client or patient outcomes. This is an advanced course on the interpretation of clusters or patterns of the signs identified during the Overhead Squat <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a> (a.k.a OSA, OHSA, squat <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>, overhead squat, and similar to the deep squat of the Functional Movement Screen). This course builds on the concepts in previous courses:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Introduction</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a></li>
</ul>
The Overhead Squat <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> is particularly effective as a starting point for movement quality <a id="assessment" data-tip="1481" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">evaluation</a> because it challenges the dynamic flexibility and neuromuscular control of the large joints of the <a id="kinetic-chain-2" data-tip="1544" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinetic-chain-2" class="glossary">kinetic chain</a>. The Overhead Squat <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> is the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> of a set of <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> signs:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet flatten</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet turn-out</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-in</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-out</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms fall</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-11-shoulders-elevate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulder girdle elevation</a></li>
</ul>
If you use the OHSA in practice, you have probably noticed it is very rare that an individual presents with a single &quot;sign&quot; of dysfunction. If you look closely at the tables in the article <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a>, you will note that many of the same muscles continue to appear, exhibiting the same changes in activity and length, throughout multiple signs/tables. This is especially true of signs related to the same joint or <a id="proximal" data-tip="1564" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/proximal" class="glossary">proximal</a> joints (for example, &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet flatten</a>,&quot; &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-5-feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet turn-out</a>,&quot; &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knees bow in</a>,&quot; etc). This repetition gives inference to signs being related to one another, resulting in &quot;sign clusters,&quot; and these clusters are likely representative of compensation patterns. In fact, practice may highlight that dysfunction most often presents in patterns. Fortunately, these patterns are repetitive, predictable, and easily categorized into a few over-arching <a id="model" data-tip="1471" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">models</a> of <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction/movement impairment. Below you will find tables with an analysis of each <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>, with the muscles and interventions hyperlinked, hyperlinks for further reading on each pattern, a video description of how to identify the <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> using the OHSA, how to use the Modified OHSA for differentiation, and a brief discussion on <a id="relevance" data-tip="1505" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/relevance" class="glossary">relevant</a> research.
<h4>Advantages of Identifying Compensation Patterns:</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Consideration of multi-joint structures (e.g. sciatic <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a>, iliotibial band, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biceps femoris</a>, etc.)</li>
 <li>Consideration of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> synergies (e.g. core subsystems)</li>
 <li>Consideration of how one sign may be related to, or contribute to other signs</li>
 <li>Optimizing &quot;Integration Exercise&quot; selection</li>
 <li>Create &quot;more complete&quot; corrective/therapeutic interventions</li>
</ul>
The Sign Clusters Discussed:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Extremity Dysfunction</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/articles/sacroiliac-joint-motion-and-predictive-model-of-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbosacral Dysfunction</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction</a></li>
</ul>
Printable PDF of the Movement <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> Template (including the OHSA):
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbush.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Movement-Assessment.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Movement </a><a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> Template</li>
</ul>
<img title="Overhead Squat Assessment with heel rise" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1641826258-overhead-squat-assessment-17-sig-1-1.jpg" alt="Identifying dysfunction using the Overhead Squat Assessment with modified ">

Course Description: Overhead Squat Assessment: Sign Clusters and Compensation Patterns

For an introduction to the Overhead Squat <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> (OHSA) including intent, <a id="validity" data-tip="1511" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/validity" class="glossary">validity</a>, <a id="reliability" data-tip="1515" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliability</a>, signs of dysfunction, analysis, and set-up, please review:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Introduction</a></li>
</ul>
For a review of the 8 common signs noted during OHSA, including video instructions, tables with analysis and intervention recommendations, and <a id="relevance" data-tip="1505" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/relevance" class="glossary">relevant</a> research for each sign please review:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a></li>
</ul>
Printable PDF of the Movement <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> Template (including the OHSA):
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbush.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Movement-Assessment.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Movement </a><a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Assessment</a> Template</li>
</ul>

Introduction

If you use the OHSA in practice, you have probably noticed it is very rare that an individual presents with a single &quot;sign&quot; of dysfunction. If you look closely at the tables in the article <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a>, you will note that many of the same muscles continue to appear, exhibiting the same changes in activity and length, throughout multiple signs/tables. This is especially true of signs related to the same joint or <a id="proximal" data-tip="1564" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/proximal" class="glossary">proximal</a> joints (for example, &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet flatten</a>,&quot; &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-5-feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet turn-out</a>,&quot; &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knees bow in</a>,&quot; etc). This repetition gives inference to signs being related to one another, resulting in &quot;sign clusters,&quot; and these clusters are likely representative of compensation patterns. In fact, practice may highlight that dysfunction most often presents in patterns. Fortunately, these patterns are repetitive, predictable, and easily categorized into a few over-arching <a id="model" data-tip="1471" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">models</a> of <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction/movement impairment. Below you will find tables with analysis of each <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>, with the muscles and interventions hyperlinked, hyperlinks for further reading on each pattern, a video description of how to identify the <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> using the OHSA, how to use the Modified OHSA for differentiation, and a brief discussion on <a id="relevance" data-tip="1505" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/relevance" class="glossary">relevant</a> research.
<h4>Advantages of Identifying Compensation Patterns:</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Consideration of multi-joint structures (e.g. sciatic <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a>, iliotibial band, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biceps femoris</a>, etc.)</li>
 <li>Consideration of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> synergies (e.g. core subsystems)</li>
 <li>Consideration of how one sign may be related to, or contribute to other signs</li>
 <li>Optimizing &quot;Integration Exercise&quot; selection</li>
 <li>Create &quot;more complete&quot; corrective/therapeutic interventions</li>
</ul>

<h4>Signs that may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a>:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet flatten</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet turn-out</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-in</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-out</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift</a></li>
</ul>
Note: All of the signs above may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a>. The &quot;OHSA with Modification&quot; is used to differentiate between these two compensation patterns.
<h4>OHSA with Modification - Heel Rise</h4>
<ol>
 <li>Perform OHSA as described in the article Overhead Squat Assessment: Introduction.</li>
 <li>Carefully note all &quot;signs&quot; as described in the article <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a>.</li>
 <li>Place a half foam <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> (flat side down) or similarly sized object underneath the heels of the individual being assessed.</li>
 <li>Perform the OHSA again (with the &quot;heel rise&quot;), carefully noting all &quot;signs&quot; still present.
 <ul>
 <li>Note: The &quot;heel rise&quot; should be high enough to resolve <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet flatten</a>, and/or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet turn-out</a>.</li>
 <li>For most cases, the OHSA with Modification can be performed once, with both &quot;heel rise&quot; and &quot;arms down&quot;, to determine what signs are still present and originating from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>. For most, &quot;heel rise&quot; will not have an impact on upper body signs, and conversely, &quot;arms down&quot; will not have an impact on lower extremity signs.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ol>
<h4>Interpreting Results (Differential Reasoning)</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Heel Rise Rationale: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> is likely driven by an inability to adequately dorsiflex; the resulting <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> is an expression of functional range &quot;around&quot; this limitation. Adding a heel rise, places the ankle in relative plantar flexion to begin the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>. This increases the amount of available dorsiflexion range of motion during the OHSA. By removing this potential restriction from the OHSA, compensations that would occur as a result of inadequate dorsiflexion will not occur, and the ankle is &quot;pseudo-removed&quot; from the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>.
 <ul>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA are not present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that dysfunction originates at the ankle and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA are still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy)</li>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA improve, but are still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> dysfunction (Correct using both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">
 <h3><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)</a> Solutions Table</h3>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="2" width="368">Short/Overactive</td>
 <td colspan="2" width="412">Long/Underactive</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td width="194">
 <ul>
 <li><a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">Lateral</a> Gastrocnemius</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/soleus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Soleus</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/fibularis-muscles" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Fibularis Longus and </a><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/fibularis-muscles" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Fibularis Brevis</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/flexor-hallucis-longus-and-flexor-digitorum-longus">Flexor Hallucis Longus and Flexor Digitorum Longus</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tensor Fascia Latae/Vastus Lateralis/Iliotibial Band Complex</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Minimus</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Adductors</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">*Biceps Femoris (Short Head)</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rectus Femoris</a></li>
 </ul>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deep-longitudinal-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Deep Longitudinal Subsystem</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="174">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-internal-rotator-release-and-lengthening-tfl-gluteus-minimus-adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hip Internal Rotator: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lateral-thigh-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibial External Rotator: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Plantar Flexor and Evertor: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/joint-mobilization-lower-body-self-administered" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Self-administered Joint Mobilization: Lower Body</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="221">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibialis-anterior" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibialis Anterior</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibialis-posterior" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibialis Posterior</a></li>
 <li><a id="medial" data-tip="1568" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/medial" class="glossary">Medial</a> Gastrocnemius</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gracilis</a></li>
 <li>Semitendinosus and Semimembranosus</li>
 <li>Sartorius</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/popliteus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Popliteus</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Medius</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus</a></li>
 </ul>
 
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="191">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-medius-activation-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Medius Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibial-internal-rotator-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibial Internal Rotator Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/vmo-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">VMO Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibialis-posterior-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibialis </a><a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">Posterior</a> Activation</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibialis-anterior-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibialis </a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> Activation</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">
 Muscles marked with &quot;*&quot; are long/over-active (<a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1647" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">over-active synergists</a>). These muscles should likely be <a id="release" data-tip="1253" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">released</a>, but not stretched or activated.
 For a more detailed look at this predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">model</a> of <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction including motor behavior, <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1863" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic</a> dysfunction, considerations of fascial restriction, pathologies that may originate from this <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>, variations between individuals, corrective exercises, and a sample routine refer to:&#xA0;
 <ul>
 <li>
 <h4><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)</a></h4>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

Evidence of the table above and <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> for the Brookbush Institute&apos;s Predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)</a>&#xA0;is abundant if you consider the table above and the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a>&#xA0;model were both built and refined by research demonstrating relationships between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>,&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/knee" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knee</a>,&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>. Research using electromyography (EMG) and kinematic analysis to examine &quot;pronation,&quot; &quot;functional valgus&quot; and &quot;turn out&quot; have been particularly influential. Several studies have noted a relationship between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>, including a correlation between eversion (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet flatten</a>) and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>&#xA0;internal rotation, as well as ankle dysfunction and decreased&#xA0;gluteus medius&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a>&#xA0;activity (8-12). Nearly all studies related to a &quot;functional valgus&quot; (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knees bow-in</a>) correlate knee dysfunction with changes in&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>&#xA0;and/or&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>&#xA0;joint motion, as well as altered recruitment strategies for the muscles crossing these joints (1-8, 13-14). Further, two studies note a relationship between&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">feet turn-out</a>&#xA0;and a functional valgus (15, 16). Although it is not direct evidence of the pattern above, research on the iliotibial band and investing musculature allude to fascial/anatomical relationships between the sacroiliac (via the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a>), the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>,&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/knee" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knee</a>,&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>&#xA0;joints (via the tibiofibular joints) (17-19). Last, there is evidence to suggest that this <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> may be predictive of pain and pathology (ACL Injury) (1).
<img title="Lower leg dysfunction during the Overhead Squat Assessment" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649862955-feet-turn-out.jpg" alt="Image of feet turn out, a common lower leg dysfunction">

Video Description of Lower Extremity Dysfunction

<h4>Signs that may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-in</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-out</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a></li>
</ul>
Note: Many of the signs above may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>, or in the case of &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a>&quot; related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a>. The &quot;OHSA with Modification&quot; is used to differentiate between these two compensation patterns.
<h4>OHSA with Modification - Heel Rise and Arms Down</h4>
<ol>
 <li>Perform OHSA as described in the article Overhead Squat Assessment: Introduction.</li>
 <li>Carefully note all &quot;signs&quot; as described in the article <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a>.</li>
 <li>Place a half foam <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> (flat side down) or similarly sized object underneath the heels of the individual being assessed.</li>
 <li>Perform the OHSA again with &quot;modification&quot; (heel rise), carefully noting all &quot;signs&quot; still present.
 <ul>
 <li>Note: The &quot;heel rise&quot; should be high enough to resolve <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet flatten</a>, and/or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet turn-out</a>.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Ask the patient/client to place their hands on their hips (arms down).</li>
 <li>Perform the OHSA again with &quot;modification&quot; (arms down), carefully noting all &quot;signs&quot; still present.
 <ul>
 <li>Note: For most cases, the OHSA with Modification can be performed once, with both &quot;heel rise&quot; and &quot;arms down&quot;, to determine what signs are still present and originating from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>. For most, &quot;heel rise&quot; will not have an impact on upper body signs, and conversely, &quot;arms down&quot; will not have an impact on lower extremity signs.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ol>
<h4>Interpreting Results (Differential Reasoning)</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Heel Rise Rationale: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> is likely driven by an inability to adequately dorsiflex; the resulting <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> an expression of functional range &quot;around&quot; this limitation. Adding a heel rise, places the ankle in relative plantar flexion to begin the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>. This increases the amount of available dorsiflexion range of motion during the OHSA. By removing this potential restriction from the OHSA, compensations that would occur as a result of inadequate dorsiflexion will not occur, and the ankle is &quot;pseudo-removed&quot; from the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>.
 <ul>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA are not present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that dysfunction originates at the ankle and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA are still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the signs noted during the OHSA improve, but are still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> dysfunction (Correct using both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Arms Down (Hands on Hips) Rationale: If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> is short/over-active it may contribute to an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt) or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a>. Presumably, this implies that <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> over-activity may originate from either dysfunction. By placing the hands on the hips (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-glenohumeral-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder</a> adduction and internal rotation), the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> is placed in a &quot;shortened&quot; position reducing their capacity to contribute to the OHSA and the observed dysfunction.
 <ul>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt) is present during the OHSA, but not present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt) is present during the OHSA, and still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt) improves but is still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using both the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).
 <ul>
 <li>Note: The OHSA with Arms Down Modification may produce an additional sign &quot;Trunk Flexion&quot; and/or an increase in <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a>. It has been our experience that these signs are related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and can best be explained by the dominance of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)</a>.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4">
 <h3><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a> Solutions Table</h3>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="2">Short/Over-active</td>
 <td colspan="2">Long/Under-active</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Latissimus Dorsi</a></li>
 <li>Erector Spinae</li>
 <li>Multifidus</li>
 <li>Rotatores, interspinalis, intertransversarii</li>
 <li>Psoas</li>
 <li>Iliacus</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tensor Fasciae Latae (TFL)</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Minimus
 
 </li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/rectus-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rectus Femoris</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Adductor Complex</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-flexor-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hip Flexor: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbar-extensor-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbar Extensor: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rectus Abdominis</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">External Obliques</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/internal-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Internal Obliques</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Medius</li>
 <li>
 <span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; color: var(--color); letter-spacing: 0px;">Semitendinosus &amp; semimembranosus
 </li>
 </ul>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/transverse-abdominis-activation-quadrupeds-progressions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Transverse Abdominis Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-medius-activation-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Medius Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibial-internal-rotator-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibial Internal Rotator Activation</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4">
 Muscles marked with &quot;*&quot; are long/over-active (<a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1647" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">over-active synergists</a>). These muscles should likely be <a id="release" data-tip="1253" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">released</a>, but not stretched or activated.
 <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tibial-internal-rotator-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tibial Internal Rotator Activation</a> was only added as a means to address semitendinosus &amp; semimembranosus under-activity.
 For a more detailed look at this predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">model</a> of <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction including motor behavior, <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1863" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic</a> dysfunction, considerations of fascial restriction, pathologies that may originate from this <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>, variations between individuals, corrective exercises, and a sample routine refer to:
 <ul>
 <li>
 <h4><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a></h4>
 
 </li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

Evidence of the table above, and <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> for the Brookbush Institute&apos;s Predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a>&#xA0;is abundant, if you consider the table above and the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>&#xA0;model have been refined by research demonstrating relationships between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>, lumbar spine, and sacroiliac joint dysfunction, and electromyography (EMG) research on those individuals exhibiting signs of pain and dysfunction from those joints (20-29). Although the relationship between these joints is more widely accepted than the relationships noted between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>, or&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/knee" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knee</a>, it is still worth restating. There is significant evidence to <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> a <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> that includes an assumption of <a id="regional-interdependence" data-tip="1542" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/regional-interdependence" class="glossary">regional interdependence</a> between the trunk and hip, as pain and dysfunction of the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) or lumbar spine may alter the activity of any or all muscles of the trunk and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>&#xA0;(20-29). A particularly important relationship to be considered relative to function and sports performance, is the link between low back pain/lumbosacral dysfunction, the inhibition of the glute complex (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;gluteus medius), and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic core musculature</a>,&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biceps femoris</a>&#xA0;synergistic dominance, and hamstring injury (21, 25, 28 29, 34). Although it is not direct evidence of the pattern above, evidence of an anatomical/fascial relationship between these structures is seen in research demonstrating the ability of the thoracolumbar fascia to transmit force between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a>, and the&#xA0;paraspinals&#xA0;and the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deep abdominals</a>&#xA0;(30-33). Last, there is evidence to suggest that altered movement patterns and trunk <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> activity may be predictive of pain and pathology (low back pain) (20).
<img title="Example of an anterior pelvic tilt in the Overhead Squat Assessment" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649863948-apt.jpg" width="354" height="423" alt="Anterior pelvic tilt, a common lumbopelvic hip complex dysfunction">

Video Description of Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction

<h4>Signs that may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-11-shoulders-elevate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulders Elevate</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift</a></li>
</ul>
Note: The signs above (except <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-11-shoulders-elevate" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulders Elevate</a>) may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>. The &quot;OHSA with Modification&quot; is used to differentiate between these two compensation patterns.
<h4>OHSA with Modification - Arms Down (Hands on Hips)</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Perform OHSA as described in the article <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Introduction</a></li>
 <li>Carefully note all &quot;signs&quot; as described in the courses <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment: Signs of Dysfunction</a></li>
 <li>Ask the patient/client to place their hands on their hips (arms down).</li>
 <li>Perform the OHSA again with &quot;modification&quot; (&quot;arms down&quot;), carefully noting all &quot;signs&quot; still present.
 <ul>
 <li>Note: For most cases, the OHSA with Modification can be performed once, with both &quot;heel rise&quot; and &quot;arms down&quot;, to determine what signs are still present and originating from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>. For most, &quot;heel rise&quot; will not have an impact on upper body signs, and conversely, &quot;arms down&quot; will not have an impact on lower extremity signs.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h4>Squat with Modification - Arms Down (Hands on Hips)</h4>
Arms Down (Hands on Hips) Rationale: If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> is short/over-active it may contribute to an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt) or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a>. Presumably, this implies that <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> over-activity may originate from either dysfunction. By placing the hands on the hips (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-glenohumeral-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder</a> adduction and internal rotation), the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> are placed in a &quot;shortened&quot; positioned reducing their capacity to contribute to the OHSA and the observed dysfunction.
<ul>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt) is present during the OHSA, but not present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> corrective strategy)</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt) is present during the OHSA, and still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt) improves but is still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using both the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> corrective strategy).
 <ul>
 <li>Note: The OHSA with Arms Down Modification may produce an additional sign &quot;Trunk Flexion&quot; and/or an increase in <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a>. It has been our experience that these signs are related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and can be best explained by dominance of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">
 <h3><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a> Solutions Table</h3>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="2" width="368">Short/Overactive</td>
 <td colspan="2" width="412">Long/Underactive</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td width="194">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/pectoralis-minor" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pectoralis Minor</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/levator-scapulae" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Levator Scapulae</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/trapezius-muscle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Trapezius</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rhomboids" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rhomboids</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Latissimus Dorsi</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Teres Major</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/subscapularis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Subscapularis</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/coracobrachialis">Coracobrachialis</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-brachii">Biceps Brachii</a></li>
 </ul>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="174">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-internal-rotator-posterior-deltoid-release-lengthening" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulder Internal Rotator and </a><a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">Posterior</a> Deltoid: <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/scapular-muscle-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scapular Muscle: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/joint-mobilizations-upper-body-self-administered" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Self-administered Joint Mobilizations: Upper Body</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="221">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/trapezius-muscle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Trapezius</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/serratus-anterior" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Serratus Anterior</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/infraspinatus-and-teres-minor" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Infraspinatus</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/infraspinatus-and-teres-minor" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Teres Minor</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deltoids" target="_blank" rel="noopener">*Posterior Deltoid</a></li>
 <li>Long Head of Triceps</li>
 </ul>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="191">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deep-cervical-flexor-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Deep Cervical Flexor Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-rotators" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulder External Rotator Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/serratus-anterior-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Serratus </a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> Activation</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/trapezius-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Trapezius Activation</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">
 Muscles marked with &quot;*&quot; are long/over-active (<a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1647" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">over-active synergists</a>). These muscles should likely be <a id="release" data-tip="1253" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">released</a>, but not stretched or activated.
 For a more detailed look at this predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">model</a> of <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction including motor behavior, <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1863" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic</a> dysfunction, considerations of fascial restriction, pathologies that may originate from this <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>, variations between individuals, corrective exercises, and a sample routine refer to:
 <ul>
 <li>
 <h4><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a></h4>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

Evidence of the table above, and <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> for the Brookbush Institute&apos;s Predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a>&#xA0;is abundant if you consider that the table above and the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>&#xA0;model have been built and refined by research demonstrating relationships between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-glenohumeral-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder</a>, scapula, thoracic and cervical spine. Research using electromyography (EMG) and kinematic analysis to examine &quot;shoulder impingement syndrome,&quot; &quot;scapular dyskinesis&quot; and &quot;thoracic kyphosis&quot; have been particularly influential. Several studies have indicated a relationship between scapular&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/glossary/dyskinesis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dyskinesis</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-glenohumeral-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder</a>&#xA0;dysfunction, and the relationship between these joints is so widely accepted it would be a stretch to refer to this relationship as evidence of <a id="regional-interdependence" data-tip="1542" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/regional-interdependence" class="glossary">regional interdependence</a> (35 - 38, 52). However, there also seems to be a link between cervical dysfunction, scapular <a id="dyskinesis" data-tip="1693" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/dyskinesis" class="glossary">dyskinesis</a>, and a decrease in&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/serratus-anterior" target="_blank" rel="noopener">serratus anterior</a>&#xA0;activity (39 - 41), thoracic kyphosis has been linked to shoulder impingement syndrome (42), and a more exotic relationship (perhaps the best evidence for <a id="regional-interdependence" data-tip="1542" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/regional-interdependence" class="glossary">regional interdependence</a>) between altered scapular <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> recruitment post elbow/forearm injury has been demonstrated in two studies (46-47). Additionally, the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>&#xA0;model includes the most direct evidence of <a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1643" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">synergistic dominance</a>, with a study by Ibarra et al. demonstrating increased&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deltoids" target="_blank" rel="noopener">posterior deltoid</a>&#xA0;activity during shoulder flexion in those with assessed <a id="latent-trigger-point" data-tip="1134" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/latent-trigger-point" class="glossary">tender points</a> (44).
The&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>&#xA0;model does benefit from some of the best research to date regarding altered <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a> in the presence of pain (shoulder impingement syndrome) for both the shoulder and scapula, aiding in the refinement of a predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">model</a> of <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1863" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic</a> dysfunction (shoulder <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> and <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a>, scapula <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> tipping and downward rotation) (43-44). Further, although the implications of these studies have yet to be determined, the upper body has perhaps the most complex myofascial system, implying relationships between all of the muscles of the upper body and trunk via the pectoral fascia, clavipectoral fascia, axillary and brachial fascia, infraspinatus and cervicothoracic fascia and the superficial abdominal fascia (48 - 51).
<img title="Arms Fall in the Overhead Squat Assessment" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649258155-arms-fall-1.jpg" alt="Arms fall, a common upper body dysfunction">

Video Description of Upper Body Dysfunction

Evidence of the table above, and <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> for the Brookbush Institute&apos;s Predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction (SIJ), is again abundant, especially if you consider the table and <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> above as a <a id="isoform" data-tip="1277" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/isoform" class="glossary">variant</a>, or at least related to the predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a>. Research demonstrating relationships between the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>, lumbar spine, and sacroiliac joint dysfunction, and electromyography (EMG) research on those individuals exhibiting signs of pain and dysfunction from those joints (20-29) are again used to build and refine the <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">Model</a> of SIJ&#xA0;(and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>). As noted under&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>, a particularly important relationship to be considered relative to function and sports performance, is the link between low back pain/lumbosacral dysfunction, the inhibition of the glute complex (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;gluteus medius) and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic core musculature</a>, and a relative increase in&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biceps femoris</a>&#xA0;activity (<a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1643" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">synergistic dominance</a>) (21, 25, 28 29, 34). It is my <a id="hypothesis" data-tip="1446" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hypothesis" class="glossary">hypothesis</a>, that this increase in&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">biceps femoris</a>&#xA0;activity is representative of&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deep-longitudinal-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">deep longitudinal subsystem (DLS)</a>&#xA0;synergistic dominance, a group that should include the&#xA0;piriformis&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a</a><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dductor magnus</a>. Over-activity of the&#xA0;piriformis,&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/piriformis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">b</a><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">iceps femoris</a>,&#xA0;and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a</a><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dductor magnus</a>&#xA0;would result in increased <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> in the sacrotuberous ligament (62, 63), resulting in sacroiliac joint <a id="dyskinesis" data-tip="1693" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/dyskinesis" class="glossary">dyskinesis</a> (<a id="nutation" data-tip="1213" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nutation" class="glossary">nutation</a> restriction) and a relatively posteriorly tilted innominate. Further, as these same muscles may also contribute to hip extension and external rotation, they would be adaptively shortened (and presumably over-active) in those individuals that exhibit a&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-17-sign-clusters-posterior-pelvic-tilt-butt-wink-and-inadequate-forward-lean-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">posterior pelvic tilt</a>&#xA0;and/or&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knees bow-out</a>.
<img title="Overhead Squat Assessment with heels elevated to isolate dysfunction" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1641826258-overhead-squat-assessment-17-sig-1-1.jpg" alt="An Overhead Squat Assessment with Modification">

Video Description of Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction

<h3>A sign of unilateral dysfunction and/or dysfunction that is more pronounced on one side of the body.</h3>
<h4>Signs that may be related to <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a>:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift (AWS)</a></li>
 <li>In addition to the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a>, it is important to note the asymmetry between the right (R) and left (L) sides for all <a id="bilateral" data-tip="1552" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/bilateral" class="glossary">bilateral</a> signs.
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-4-feet-flat-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet flatten</a> (R only, L only, R &gt; L, L &gt; R)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/feet-turn-out-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Feet turn-out</a> (R only, L only, R &gt; L, L &gt; R)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-in</a> (R only, L only, R &gt; L, L &gt; R)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-out</a> (R only, L only, R &gt; L, L &gt; R)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a> (R only, L only, R &gt; L, L &gt; R)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt)</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive forward lean</a></li>
</ul>
The <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> differs from the compensation patterns discussed above. Although an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> is likely the &quot;hallmark sign&quot; of Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction (SIJD) (a variation of <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a>), it may also originate from <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>, and/or <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a>. It is of particular importance that the OHSA with Modification is used to determine the origin of dysfunction before developing an intervention when a patient/client exhibits an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a>.
<h4>Interpreting Results (Differential Reasoning)</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Heel Rise Rationale: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> is likely driven by an inability to adequately dorsiflex, and the resulting <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> being an adaptation to achieve functional range &quot;around&quot; this limitation. Adding a heel rise, places the ankle in relative plantar flexion to begin the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>. This increases the amount of available dorsiflexion range of motion during the OHSA. By removing this potential restriction from the OHSA, the ankle is &quot;removed&quot; from the <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>.
 <ul>
 <li>If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> noted during the OHSA is not present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that dysfunction originates at the ankle and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> (Correct by addressing the side exhibiting more <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a>).</li>
 <li>If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> noted during the OHSA is still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> strategy discussed below)</li>
 <li>If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> noted during the OHSA improves, but is still present during the OHSA with Heel Rise, then we may assume that the dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> dysfunction (Correct by addressing both the side exhibiting more <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LED</a> and using the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> corrective strategy discussed below)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Arms Down (Hands on Hips) Rationale: If the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> is short/over-active it may contribute to an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive lordosis (</a><a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt) or <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arms Fall</a>. Presumably, this implies that <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> over-activity may originate from either dysfunction. By placing the hands on the hips (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulder-glenohumeral-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">shoulder</a> adduction and internal rotation), the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> are placed in a &quot;shortened&quot; position that reduces their capacity to contribute to the OHSA and the observed dysfunction.
 <ul>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> is present during the OHSA, but not present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> (Correct by addressing the side exhibiting more <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a>)</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> is present during the OHSA, and still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct using the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> strategy discussed below).</li>
 <li>If the sign <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> is present during the OHSA and improves but is still present during the OHSA with Arms Down, then we may assume that dysfunction originates from both <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">LPHCD</a> (Correct by addressing both the side exhibiting more <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> and using the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> corrective strategy discussed below).
 <ul>
 <li>Note: It has been our clinical experience that although it is possible that <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UBD</a> may result in an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> it is relatively rare.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">
 <h2><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift Right (AWS-R)</a> Solution Table</h2>
 The table below assumes an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a> to the right, originating from SIJD. Analysis of this dysfunction can be summarized as <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-in</a> on the side of the shift (right), and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees bow-out</a> on the side opposite the shift (left).
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="2" width="477">Short/Overactive</td>
 <td colspan="2" width="303">Long/Underactive</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td width="157">Right Hip Internal Rotators
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tensor Fascia Latae/Vastus Lateralis/Iliotibial Band Complex</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Minimus</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Adductors</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="86">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-internal-rotator-release-and-lengthening-tfl-gluteus-minimus-adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hip Internal Rotator: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/joint-mobilization-lower-body-self-administered" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Self-administered Joint Mobilization: Lower Body</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="212">Right Glute Complex:
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus</a></li>
 <li>Gluteus Medius</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="212">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-medius-activation-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Medius Activation</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus-activation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus Activation</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td width="157">
 Left Hip External Rotators:
 <ul>
 <li>Piriformis</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/biceps-femoris" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Biceps Femoris</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/adductors" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Adductor Magnus</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="86">
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-external-rotator-flexibility" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hip External Rotator: </a><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a> and Lengthening</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/joint-mobilization-lower-body-self-administered" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Self-administered Joint Mobilization: Lower Body</a></li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 <td width="212"></td>
 <td width="212"></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td colspan="4" width="779">You cannot correct an asymmetrical dysfunction with a symmetrical solution.
 <ul>
 <li>That is if dysfunction is asymmetrical (right to left) you cannot use the same techniques on both sides of the body and expect to resolve the asymmetry.</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
.

The Brookbush Institute has implicated right to left asymmetry is perhaps the best predictor of injury and a leading contributor to pain. However, at this point, there is insufficient research to assert that this claim is based on 3rd party objective studies. For the most part, research has only examined asymmetry as an accessory finding. That is, studies that start with the presence of an&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AWS</a>&#xA0;as an <a id="independent-variable" data-tip="1440" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/independent-variable" class="glossary">independent variable</a> have yet to be designed. Studies have implicated that flexibility adaptation may occur in response to the unique stresses of sporting activity (53 - 58), for example, studies have shown an increase in lower back flexibility, but a loss of shoulder internal rotation range of motion in male bodybuilders (53, 58). Given that some sports are inherently asymmetrical (golf, tennis, baseball, etc.), and the inference that flexibility may change as an adaptation to activity, the potential risks associated with asymmetry are worth further consideration. Two studies that examined the risk of injury as it relates to asymmetry were not conclusive (59, 60, 61). One study suggested that a low score on the &quot;Functional Movement Screen&quot; in conjunction with asymmetry was a better predictor of injury than the <a id="fibromyalgia" data-tip="1137" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/fibromyalgia" class="glossary">FMS</a> or asymmetry alone (59). Another study suggested that asymmetries were present in a previously injured population, but did not have a sufficient number of subjects to reach statistical significance when compared to the asymmetries of uninjured controls (60). And, the last study making the inference that asymmetrical pronation was correlated with asymmetry in the hips and low back pain (61). One research review on flexibility and the risk of injury did find a relationship between <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> and injury and suggested that <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> correction may be beneficial for reducing risk (62). This last study, succinctly states the same recommendations made by the Brookbush Institute.
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649876308-asymmerical-2.jpg" title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating an asymmetrical weigth shift" alt="Asymmetrical Weight Shift">

Video Description of Asymmetrical Weight Shift

We started with an introduction, progressed to analysis of &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">signs</a>&quot; and continued to clusters of signs that imply compensation patterns in this article, but inevitably you will begin to notice that many individuals present with more than one <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a>. The question arises, &quot;how do I address multiple issues&quot;? As the relative &quot;completeness of a strategy&quot; (addressing all affected structures) will inevitably affect outcomes, and time is always limited, the Brookbush Institute recommends using a comprehensive corrective strategy for one <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> at a time. Use the following &quot;filter&quot; or algorithm to determine which <a id="compensation-pattern" data-tip="1696" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compensation-pattern" class="glossary">compensation pattern</a> you will address first.
<ol>
 <li>Obstructive Dysfunction - prohibiting participation in daily activities</li>
 <li>Asymmetrical Dysfunction - differences between right and left sides</li>
 <li>Worst Dysfunction - when a dysfunction is clearly more extreme than other <a id="movement-impairment" data-tip="1579" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/movement-impairment" class="glossary">dysfunctions</a> presented</li>
 <li>Bottom Up- start&#xA0;with the ankle complex and work up the <a id="kinetic-chain-2" data-tip="1544" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinetic-chain-2" class="glossary">kinetic chain</a> with successive programming</li>
</ol>

Video Explanation How to Decide Which Compensation Pattern to Address

<h4>Regional Interdependence of Lower Extremity</h4>
<ol>
 <li>Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501.</li>
 <li>Dos Reis, A. C., Correa, J. C. F., Bley, A. S., Rabelo, N. D. D. A., Fukuda, T. Y., &amp; Lucareli, P. R. G. (2015). Kinematic and Kinetic Analysis of the Single-Leg Triple Hop Test in Women With and Without Patellofemoral Pain. journal of orthopaedic &amp; sports physical therapy, 45(10), 799-807.</li>
 <li>Noehren, B., Scholz, J., Davis, I. (2011) The effects of real-time gait retraining on hip kinematics, pain, and function in subjects with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Br Journal of Sports Medicine. 45:691-696</li>
 <li>Ireland, ML., Wilson, JD., Ballantyne, BT., Davis, IM. (2003). Hip Strength in Females With and Without Patellofemoral Pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2003. 33: 671-676</li>
 <li>Noehren B, Hamill J, Davis I. Prospective Evidence for a Hip Etiology in Patellofemoral Pain. Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise. 2013;45(6):1120&ndash;1124.</li>
 <li>Smith, J. A., Popovich, J. M., &amp; Kulig, K. (2014). The influence of hip strength on lower limb, pelvis, and trunk kinematics and coordination patterns during walking and hopping in healthy women. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, (Early Access), 1-23.</li>
 <li>Mauntel, T., Begalle, R., Cram, T., Frank, B., Hirth, C., Blackburn, T., &amp; Padua, D. (2013). The effects of lower extremity muscle activation and passive range of motion on single leg squat performance. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research / National Strength &amp; Conditioning Association, 27(7), 1813-1823.</li>
 <li>Padua, D. A., Bell, D. R., &amp; Clark, M. A. (2012). Neuromuscular characteristics of individuals displaying excessive medial knee displacement. Journal of athletic training, 47(5), 525</li>
 <li>Macrum et al. Effect of limiting ankle-dorsiflexion range of motion on lower extremity kinematics and muscle-activation patterns during a squat. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 2012, 21, Pg 144-150</li>
 <li>Souza, T. R., Pinto, R. Z., Trede, R. G., Kirkwood, R. N., &amp; Fonseca, S. T. (2010). Temporal couplings between rearfoot&ndash;shank complex and hip joint during walking. Clinical biomechanics, 25(7), 745-748.</li>
 <li>Franettovich, S. M., Honeywill, C. O. N. O. R., Wyndow, N., Crossley, K. M., &amp; Creaby, M. W. (2014). Neuromotor control of gluteal muscles in runners with achilles tendinopathy. Medicine and science in sports and exercise,46(3), 594-599.</li>
 <li>Gribble, P. A., &amp; Robinson, R. H. (2009). Alterations in knee kinematics and dynamic stability associated with chronic ankle instability. Journal of Athletic Training, 44(4), 350-355.</li>
 <li>Bell, D. R., Padua, D. A., &amp; Clark, M. A. (2008). Muscle strength and flexibility characteristics of people displaying excessive medial knee displacement. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 89(7), 1323-1328.</li>
 <li>Bell, D. R., Vesci, B. J., DiStefano, L. J., Guskiewicz, K. M., Hirth, C. J., &amp; Padua, D. A. (2012). Muscle activity and flexibility in individuals with medial knee displacement during the overhead squat. Athletic Training and Sports Health Care, 4(3), 117-125.</li>
 <li>Andrews, M., Noyes, F. R., Hewett, T. E., &amp; Andriacchi, T. P. (1996). Lower limb alignment and foot angle are related to stance phase knee adduction in normal subjects: a critical analysis of the reliability of gait analysis data. Journal of orthopaedic research, 14(2), 289-295.</li>
 <li>Barrios, J. A., Crossley, K. M., &amp; Davis, I. S. (2010). Gait retraining to reduce the knee adduction moment through real-time visual feedback of dynamic knee alignment. Journal of biomechanics, 43(11), 2208-2213.</li>
 <li>Stecco, A., Gilliar, W., Hill, R., Fullerton, B., Stecco, Carla. (2013). The anatomical and functional relation between gluteus maximus and fascia lata. Journal of Bodywork &amp; Movement Therapies. 17. 512-51</li>
 <li>Barker, PJ., Hapuarachchi, K.S., Ross, J.A., Sambaiew, E., Ranger, T.A., and Briggs, C.A. (2013) Anatomy and biomechanics of gluteus maximus and the thoracolumbar fascia at the sacroiliac joint. Wiley Online Library. DOI: 10.1002/ca.22233</li>
 <li>Gibbons, S.G.T. (2004) The anatomy of the deep sacral part of the gluteus maximus and the psoas muscle: A clinical perspective. Proceeds of: The 5th interdisciplinary World Congress on Low Back Pain. November 7-11, Melbourne, Australia
 <ul>
 <li>Regional Interdependence of Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</li>
 <li>Tateuchi, H., Taniguchi, M., Mori, N., Ichihashi, N. Balance of hip and trunk muscle activity is associated with increased anterior pelvic tilt during prone hip extension (2013) Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 22 (3). 391-397]</li>
 <li>Ellison, JB., Rose, S., Sahrmann, S. (1990). Patterns of Hip Rotation Range of Motion: A Comparison Between Healthy Subjects and Patients with Low Back Pain. Phys Ther 1990. 70: 537-541</li>
 <li>Schache, A. G., Blanch, P. D., &amp; Murphy, A. T. (2000). Relation of anterior pelvic tilt during running to clinical and kinematic measures of hip extension. British journal of sports medicine, 34(4), 279-283.</li>
 <li>Hodges, P., Richardson, C. (1996). Inefficient Muscular Stabilization of the Lumbar Spine Associated With Low Back Pain: A Motor Control Evaluation of Transverse Abdominis. Spine, 21(22), 2640-2650</li>
 <li>Cooper, N., Scavo, K., Strickland, K., Tipayamongkol, N., Nicholson, J., Bewyer, D., Sluka, K. Prevalence of gluteus medius weakness in people with chronic low back pain compared to healthy controls. J Euro Spine. 26 May 2015</li>
 <li>Hungerford, B., Gilleard, W., Hodges, P. (2003) Evidence of altered lumbopelvic muscle recruitment in the presence of sacroiliac joint pain. Spine 28(14), 1593-1600</li>
 <li>O&rsquo;Sullivan, P. B., Beales, D. J., Beetham, J. A., Cripps, J., Graf, F., Lin, I. B., &hellip; &amp; Avery, A. (2002). Altered motor control strategies in subjects with sacroiliac joint pain during the active straight-leg-raise test. Spine, 27(1), E1-E8</li>
 <li>Lewis CL, Sahrmann. 2005 Timing of muscle activation during prone hip extension. Abstract. J Orhop Sports Phys Ther 35(1): A56.</li>
 <li>Matthew Shirey, D. P. T., Matthew Hurlbutt, D. P. T., Nicole Johansen, D. P. T., Gregory, W. K., Wilkinson, S. G., &amp; Hoover, D. L. The influence of core musculature engagement on hip and knee kinematics in women during a single leg squat. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2012 Feb; 7(1): 1&ndash;12.</li>
 <li>Barker, PJ., Hapuarachchi, K.S., Ross, J.A., Sambaiew, E., Ranger, T.A., and Briggs, C.A. (2013). Anatomy and biomechanics of gluteus maximus and the thoracolumbar fascia at the sacroiliac joint. Wiley Online Library. DOI: 10.1002/ca.22233</li>
 <li>Carvalhais, VO., Ocarino, Jde M., Ara&uacute;jo, VL., Souza, TR., Silva, PL., Fonseca, ST. (2012). Myofascial force transmission between the latissimus dorsi and gluteus maximus muscles: An in vivo experiment. Journal of Biomechanics 46. 1003-1007</li>
 <li>Langevin, H., Fox, R., Koptiuch, C., Badger, G., Greenan-Nauman, A., Bouffard, N., Konofagou, E., Lee, W., Triano, J., Henry, S. (2011) Reduced thoracolumbar fascia shear strain in human low back pain. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 12: 203.</li>
 <li>Vleeming, A., Schuenke, M.D., Danneels,Willard, F.H. The functional coupling of the deep abdominal and paraspinal muscles: the effects of simulated paraspinal muscle contraction on force transfer to the middle and posterior layer of the thoracolumbar fascia. Journal of Anatomy, 2014. 225, 447-462</li>
 <li>Hennessey, L., &amp; Watson, A. W. (1993). Flexibility and posture assessment in relation to hamstring injury. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(4), 243-246.
 <ul>
 <li>Regional Interdependence of Upper Body</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Scovazzo, M.L., Browne, A., Pink, M., Jobe, F.W., and Kerrigan, J. (1991). The painful shoulder during freestyle swimming: An electromyographic cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(6). 577-582</li>
 <li>Ludewig P.M., Cook, T.M. (2000) Alterations in shoulder kinematics and associated muscle activity in people with symptoms of shoulder impingement.
 Physical Therapy. 80 (3) 276-291
 </li>
 <li>Cools, A.M., Witvrouw, E.E., Declercq, G.A., Danneels, L.A., Cambier, D.C. (2003) Scapular muscle recruitment patterns: Trapezius muscle latency with and without impingement symptoms. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 31(4). 542-549</li>
 <li>Fayad F, Roby-Brami A, Yazbeck C, Hanneton S, Lefevre-Colau MM, Gautheron V, Poiraudeau S, Revel M. (2008). &ldquo;Three-dimensional scapular kinematics and scapulohumeral rhythm in patients with glenohumeral osteoarthritis or frozen shoulder.&rdquo; 2008 Jbiomech, 41(2): 326-332</li>
 <li>Helgadottir, H., Kristjansson, E., Einarsson, E., Karduna, A., &amp; Jonsson, H. (2011). Altered activity of the serratus anterior during unilateral arm elevation in patients with cervical disorders. Journal of electromyography and kinesiology,21(6), 947-953.</li>
 <li>Kwon JW, Son SM, Lee NK. (2015). Changes in upper-extremity muscle activities due to head position in subjects with a forward head posture and rounded shoulders. J Phys Ther Sci. 27: 1739-1742</li>
 <li>Thigpen CA, Padua DA, Michener LA, Guskiewicz K, Giuliani C, Keener JD, Stergiou N. (2010). Head and shoulder posture affect scapular mechanics and muscle activity in overhead tasks. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 20: 701-709.</li>
 <li>Otoshi, K., Takegami, M., Sekiguchi, M., Onishi, Y., Yamazaki, S., Otani, K., Shishido, H., Shinichi, K., Shinichi, K. (2014). Association between kyphosis and subacromial impingement syndrome: LOHAS study. Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery. 23. e300-e307</li>
 <li>Lawrence, R. L., Braman, J. P., Laprade, R. F., &amp; Ludewig, P. M. (2014). Comparison of 3-dimensional shoulder complex kinematics in individuals with and without shoulder pain, part 1: sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, and scapulothoracic joints. journal of orthopaedic &amp; sports physical therapy, 44(9), 636-A8</li>
 <li>Lawrence, R.L., Braman, J.P., Staker, J.L., Laprade, R.F., Ludewig, P.M. (2014) Comparison of 3-dimensional shoulder complex kinematics in individuals with and without shoulder pain, Part 2: Glenohumeral joint. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy 44(9). 646-B3</li>
 <li>Jos&eacute; Miota Ibarra, Hong-You Ge, Chao Wang, Vicente Mart&iacute;nez Vizca&iacute;no, Thomas Graven-Nielsen, Lars Arendt-Nielsen &ndash; The Journal of Pain, Volume 12, Issue 12, December 2011, Pages 1282&ndash;1288</li>
 <li>Ayhan, C., Camci, E., &amp; Baltaci, G. (2015). Distal radius fractures result in alterations in scapular kinematics: A three-dimensional motion analysis. Clinical Biomechanics.</li>
 <li>Day, J. M., Bush, H., Nitz, A. J., &amp; Uhl, T. L. (2015). Scapular Muscle Performance in Individuals With Lateral Epicondylalgia. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, (Early Access), 1-35</li>
 <li>Sato, T., &amp; Hashimoto, M. (1984). Morphological analysis of the fascial lamination of the trunk. The Bulletin of Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 31(1), 21-32.</li>
 <li>Stecco, C., Gagey, O., Belloni, A., Pozzuoli, A., Porzionato, A., Macchi, V., &hellip; &amp; Delmas, V. (2007). Anatomy of the deep fascia of the upper limb. Second part: study of innervation. Morphologie, 91(292), 38-43.</li>
 <li>Stecco, C., Porzionato, A., Macchi, V., Stecco, A., Vigato, E., Parenti, A., &hellip; &amp; De Caro, R. (2008). The expansions of the pectoral girdle muscles onto the brachial fascia: morphological aspects and spatial disposition. Cells Tissues Organs, 188(3), 320-329.</li>
 <li>Stecco, A., Masiero, S., Macchi, V., Stecco, C., Porzionato, A., &amp; De Caro, R. (2009). The pectoral fascia: anatomical and histological study. Journal of bodywork and movement therapies, 13(3), 255-261.</li>
 <li>Wang, H. K., &amp; Cochrane, T. (2001). Mobility impairment, muscle imbalance, muscle weakness, scapular asymmetry and shoulder injury in elite volleyball athletes. Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 41(3), 403.
 <ul>
 <li>Asymmetrical Weight Shift</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Adams, K. J.; Snow, C. M.; Sevene, P. G.; Debeliso, M.; O&rsquo;Shea, J. P.. Weightlifters Exhibit Greater Muscle Power and Lower Back Flexibility than Non-Weightlifters 1142. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise: Volume 28(5) Supplement May 1996 p. 192, Copyright 2005 American College of Sports Medicine</li>
 <li>Barry Beedle, Chris Jessee and Micahel H. Stone. Flexibility Characteristics Among Athletes Who Weight Train. Journal of Applied Sport Science Research 5(3) p. 150-154, 1991, Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association</li>
 <li>Todd S. Ellenbecker and E. Paul Roetert. Effects of a 4-Month Season on Glenohumeral Joint Rotational Strength and Range of Motion in Female Collegiate Tennis Players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 16(1), 92-96, Copyright 2002 National Strength &amp; Conditioning Association</li>
 <li>Todd S. Ellenbecker, E. Paul Roetert, David S. Bailie, George J. Davies, and Scott W. Brown. Glenohumeral Joint Total Rotation Range of Motion in Elite Tennis Players and Baseball Pitchers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise: Volume 334(12) p. 2052-2056, 2002 Copyright 2005 American College of Sports Medicine</li>
 <li>Joshua C. Barlow, Brian W. Benjamin, Patrick J. Birt, and Christopher J. Hughes. Shoulder Strength and Range-Of-Motion Characteristics in Bodybuilders. J. Strength Cond. Res. 16(3), 367-372, Copyright 2002 National Strength &amp; Conditioning Association</li>
 <li>Witvrouw, E., Danneels, L., Asselman, P., D&rsquo;Have, T., &amp; Cambier, D. (2003). Muscle flexibility as a risk factor for developing muscle injuries in male professional soccer players a prospective study. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 31(1), 41-46.</li>
 <li>Kiesel, K. B., Butler, R. J., &amp; Plisky, P. J. (2014). Prediction of injury by limited and asymmetrical fundamental movement patterns in American football players. Journal of sport rehabilitation, 23(2), 88-94.</li>
 <li>Zifchock, R. A., Davis, I., Higginson, J., McCaw, S., &amp; Royer, T. (2008). Side-to-side differences in overuse running injury susceptibility: a retrospective study. Human movement science, 27(6), 888-902.</li>
 <li>Rothbart, B. A., &amp; Estabrook, L. (1988). Excessive pronation: a major biomechanical determinant in the development of chondromalacia and pelvic lists. J Manipulative Physiol Ther, 11(5), 373-9.</li>
 <li>Watson, A. W. S. (2001). Sports injuries related to flexibility, posture, acceleration, clinical defects, and previous injury, in high-level players of body contact sports. International journal of sports medicine, 22(03), 222-225. (Posture more predictive of pain)
 <ul>
 <li>LumboSacral Dysfunction</li>
 <li>The references for LPHCD 20-29 were also used in this section.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Vleeming, A., Stoeckart, R., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1989). The sacrotuberous ligament: a conceptual approach to its dynamic role in stabilizing the sacroiliac joint. Clinical Biomechanics, 4(4), 201-203.</li>
 <li>Vleeming, A., Van Wingerden, J. P., Snijders, C. J., Stoeckart, R., &amp; Stijnen, T. (1989). Load application to the sacrotuberous ligament; influences on sacroiliac joint mechanics. Clinical Biomechanics, 4(4), 204-209.</li>
</ol>

Bibliography

© 2017 Brent Brookbush
Questions, comments, and criticisms welcomed and encouraged!

Copyright

A-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks darker under a microscope.  This area of the cell is darker due to parallel arrangement of thicker filaments (myosin) and overlap with the thinner filaments (actin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the A-band is where actin and myosin interact.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Accuracy - the proportion of individuals correctly identified by the test results.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, a special test with perfect accuracy would imply a test has 100% specificity, 100% sensitivity, 100% positive predictive value and 100% negative predictive values.</li>
</ul>

Action Potential - A rapid change in voltage, resulting in a wave of excitation, that may result in stimulation of a nerve or muscle cell.
<ul>
 	<li>In order for an action potential to be initiated, the resting membrane voltage must exceed the excitation threshold, which then results in a cascade of depolarization and the "wave of excitation." Any stimulus below that threshold will not result in an action potential, and a stimulus greater than the threshold will not increase a single action potential, but may result in additional action potentials.  In this way, the action potential functions more like an on/off switch (all or none), and less like a dimmer switch.</li>
</ul>

A single-joint movement pattern (most often) designed to load a specific under-active muscle(s), while minimizing the contribution of over-active synergists via specific cues/joint motions.
<ul>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises are performed with the intent of addressing a muscle exhibiting a reduction in activity (tone) as a result of, or contributing to postural dysfunction.</li>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises cannot be multi-joint movement patterns due to relative flexibility, altered reciprocal inhibition, and synergistic dominance resulting in compensation patterns.</li>
</ul>
Example, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/activation/gluteus-medius-activation-progression/" target="_blank">gluteus medius activation</a> involves resisted hip abduction while minimizing the contribution of the TFL via hip extension.

Active stretching is a term used to describe a stretch that involves an active contraction of opposing musculature to lengthen a muscle to its end range. Generally these stretches are held for 2-5 seconds and repeated for 8-15 repetitions.

Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing (initiating and accelerating) the decomposition of ATP to ADP.
<ul>
 	<li>This dephosphorylation (breakdown) reaction releases energy for processes like muscular contraction.</li>
</ul>

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The molecule that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule, providing most of the energy associated with muscular contraction and human movement. ATP is composed of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three molecules of inorganic phosphates.
<ul>
 	<li>Energy is provided when hydrolysis results in the cleaving of a phophate group; resulting in adenosine diphosphate, an inorganigic phosphate group, and energy.</li>
</ul>

Algometry - measuring the amount of pressure to result in sensitivity or pain, using an algometer.
<ul>
 	<li>Generally, research uses algometry to establish a minimum pain pressure threshold (PPT), in which a lower PPT implies more sensitivity and pain, and a higher PPT implies less sensitivity and pain. PPT is a common outcome measure in trigger point research.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-140177" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg" alt="Image of an Algometer" width="500" height="333" /></a>

All-or-none principle - a nerve or muscle cell's response to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential (threshold of an action potential), the nerve or muscle fiber will respond completely; otherwise, there is no response.

Example, when a motor unit in the biceps brachii is stimulated it contracts the same way whether a 10 lb or 50 lb dumbbell is lifted.  It is actually the number of muscle cells and the size of the motor unit that determines force output.

&nbsp;

The transition period between eccentric load and concentric contraction during a repetition of an exercise.  This term is most often used in reference to power/plyometric exercises, in which a shorter amortization phase is believed to be beneficial.  The shorter amortization phase may better use the stored energy from the elastic deformation of connective tissue and enhance synchronization of myotatic (stretch) reflex with maximum voluntary contraction.

Example, the athlete was cued to spend as little time as possible in the bottom of their squat stance (the amortization phase) during a set of box jumps.

Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.

That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.

Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.

An anatomical direction; toward the front

Example, the face is on the anterior aspect of the head

Appendicular Skeleton - referring to the bones the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the bones that support them. This includes the pelvis, clavicle and scapula. There are approximately 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Appendicular, as in appendage, "that which is appended to something as a proper part," 1640s, from <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/append?ref=etymonline_crossreference">append</a> + <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/-age?ref=etymonline_crossreference">-age</a>. - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/appendage" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Appendicular skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/axial-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">axial skeleton</a>".

A reflexive decrease in muscle activity due to joint dyskinesis.
For example, a reduction in deep cervical flexor activity as a result of cervical spine dyskinesis.

Arthrokinematic Motion - Small amplitude motions between bone surfaces at a joint.  The arthrokinematic motions are roll, glide (slide or translation), spin, compression and distraction (traction). Arthrokinematic motions accompany osteokinematic motions to maintain joint congruence.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, arthrokinematic motion of the talus includes posterior glide on the tibia during ankle dorsiflexion.</li>
</ul>
Synonyms include: arthrokinematics, passive accessory motion, joint play and component motion

&nbsp;

Assessment - is the act of assessing, i.e. determining the importance, size, or value of -

In most cases, the results of an assessment are compared to normative data. If the individual exhibits values that are within normal parameters, it may be assumed that the aspect of health or motion assessed is not contributing to the patient's complaint, symptoms or movement impairment. If the results fall outside of normal parameters, it may indicate that the aspect of health or motion assessed is contributing to, or being affected by the patient/client's complaint, symptoms, or movement impairment. In some cases, the results of an assessment are compared to an "ideal model." In this case, deviations from the ideal are noted as potential issues. For example, deviations noted in the <a title="Introduction to the Overhead Squat Assessment" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/online-courses/articles/assessment/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment/" target="_blank">Overhead Squat Assessment</a> are compared to an "ideal model" of posture and motion.

Assessments used by human movement professionals can be divided into three broad categories:
<ul>
 	<li>"Clear" the Patient/Client for Intervention - These are tests, assessments and evaluations used to determine if a patient/client's issue may improve given the assessing professional's scope, skills, abilities and willingness to treat that individual.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, many of the special tests used in orthopedic medicine assist in determining the level of pathology or likelihood of a particular diagnosis. Certain issues and diagnoses are beyond the scope of the human movement professional, and are better treated by diagnostic professionals in the medical community (physicians, podiatrists, surgeons, etc.). A Calf Squeeze (Thompson) Test is one example, in which a positive sign may indicate a rupture of the Achilles tendon that may be better treated via surgical intervention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Highlight Contraindications - Tests, assessments and evaluations used to stratify risk or preclude a professional from addressing certain tissues, motions or using a particular technique.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, the Vertebral Artery Test (VBI) is often used to determine if high velocity thrust mobilizations (manipulations) are safe for a patient with cervical dysfunction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection: Tests, assessments and evaluations used to assist the professional in determining which techniques, modalities and exercises will best address a patient/client's complaints or desired goals.
<ul>
 	<li>Most movement assessments fall into this category. For example, a positive <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/elys-test-rectus-femoris-flexibility-assessment/" target="_blank">Ely's Test</a> may indicate a need to release and/or lengthen the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/" target="_blank">rectus femoris</a>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Note: An assessment, or assessment result, may fall into more than one category. For example, although goniometry is an assessment most often used to Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection, if a range of motion is significantly altered, with an abnormal end-feel, and/or causes the patient or client/pain, the individual may need to be referred to a physician for further testing and Clearance to resume rehab activities.  Further, that same patient may return to the human movement professional with a list of Contraindicated Activities from the physician. - "When in doubt, refer out!"

Axial Skeleton - referring to the bones of the head, neck, trunk and spinal column (does not include pelvis). There are approximately 80 bones in the axial skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Axial, as in "axis", referring to "imaginary motionless straight line around which a body (such as the Earth) rotates," from Latin axis "axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky" - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/axis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Axial skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/appendicular-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">appendicular skeleton</a>".

Balance - The ability to maintain a body’s center of mass over its base of support. Balance can be static or dynamic.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, maintaining balance is harder on one leg because the center of mass must stay over a much smaller base of support.</li>
</ul>

A ball and socket joint (also called a spheroid joint or spheroidal joint) is a synovial joint in which the rounded or spherical end of one bone fits into a cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. Examples include the hip and shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

Base of support (BoS) - refers to the area beneath an object or person, and the area within the perimeter created by every point of contact that the object or person makes with the supporting surface. This may include the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glutes</a> of someone sitting on a chair, or the back of someone leaning against a wall.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, during a single leg balance the BoS is the area of the foot in contact with the surface; however, when a person is standing on two feet, the BoS is the area of both feet and the surface between them.</li>
</ul>

Pertaining to both sides

Example, bilateral rows are performed with both arms at the same time.

Case-control Study - a particular form of retrospective study that samples a matched group of people who have, and do not have the outcome being studied. A case-control study is a quasi-experimental design, often used in medicine to aid in determining potential contributing factors (cannot determine causality). In this study type exposure is the dependent variable and outcome is independent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in this retrospective case-control, medical records were investigated for trends correlated with cervical pain (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Mäkela, M., Heliövaara, M., Sievers, K., Impivaara, O., Knekt, P., &amp; Aromaa, A. (1991). Prevalence, determinants, and consequences of chronic neck pain in Finland. American journal of epidemiology, 134(11), 1356-1367.</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the tail, relative to humans this term is often used to refer to "in the direction of the tale (toward the feet)".

Example, to release the trapezius muscle the therapist used a force directed caudally.

Center of mass (CoM) - an object's mean position of mass; that is, a point that is perfectly surrounded by an equal amount mass in all directions.

Center of gravity (CoG) - point where gravity appears to act. Since the human body is so small compared to the earth, we can assume gravity acts uniformly on the body, and that CoG and CoM are the same.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the CoM of the human body while lying down or standing straight up is close to our navel. However, it is possible that during a resistance exercise, the combination of the body's weight and the weight of the resistance will place the combined CoM outside the body. For example, during the mid-portion of a <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/back-squat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">back squat</a> the CoM would be several anterior to the naval.</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the head (synonym: cranial)

Example, hip pain was felt with any force directed cephalad.

Cohort Study - a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic), performing a cross-section at intervals through-out a period of time. A cohort study is a quasi-experimental design often used in medicine to aid in determining etiology or a cause-and-effect relationship. In this study type exposure is the independent variable and outcome is dependent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Cholewicki et al. (1) investigated Yale Varsity Athletes (the cohort) with 2 and 3 year follow up (longitudinal design) and found that trunk muscle response time to off-loading was predictive of future low back injury.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/core/increased-trunk-muscle-latency-may-cause-rather-than-result-from-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</a></li>
</ol>

Comparable Sign: A combination of pain, stiffness and/or spasm during examination that is comparable to the patients symptoms.
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

An alternative movement pattern that has been adopted to compensate for dysfunction/impairment in the human movement system.
Example: A lack of calf extensibility may limit dorsiflexion, leading to the knees bowing inward (functional valgus) and excessive forward lean of the torso during a squat.

An arthrokinematic motion - the approximation of joint surfaces; that is, a force that directs one bone surface into another resulting in a reduction in intra-articular volume. Although widely thought of as a "destructive force", it is likely best to consider compression as a naturally occurring, stabilizing force. Any arthrokinematic force in excess (spin, glide, roll, traction) may be viewed as potentially deleterious.

For example, during a squat the femoral head is compressed into the acetabulum by muscular forces, bodyweight and any additional external load.

Concave (Concavity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the interior surface of a bowl or sphere - to cave-in or curve inward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the internal surfaces of the pelvis is concave, holding some of the bodies viscera.</li>
</ul>

Concordant Sign - The patient's specific pain, symptom or complaint. 
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

Conductivity: Stimulation results in more than a local effect (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, in a muscle cell the stimulation of a motor endplate results in a change in cell membrane polarity that rapidly propagates (is conducted) along the entire length of the muscle cell, stimulating all sacromere.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

A condyloid joint (also called condylar, bicondylar, ellipsoid, or ellipsoidal) is an ovoid articular surface, or condyle, that is received into an elliptical cavity.  These joints permit movement in two planes.  Examples include the knee, metacarpophalangeal joints and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Connective Tissue Cell - One of the four basic types of animal tissue, consisting mostly fibers and ground substance.  These cells are specialized to binds organs together, holds them in place, protect them from external forces, and may fill space in the body's cavities.

Example, the body's muscles are enclosed in durable connective tissue sheets known as the "epimysium", "perimysium", and "endomysium," which and in support and transmitting force.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Contractility: The ability to shorten (1).
<ul>
 	<li>Contractility: Muscle cells are unique in the amount they can shorten when stimulated; this is this largerly due to the highly organized and unique arrangement of myofilaments (actin and myosin).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Pertaining to the opposite side

Example, the external oblique muscle performs contralateral rotation; rotation to the opposite side.

Convex (Convexity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere - to bulge or curve outward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the top of your head is shaped by the convex exterior surface of your skull.</li>
</ul>

Correlational Research - Non-experimental <a href="https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/">research</a> method in which the statistical relationship between two variables is investigated.
<ul>
 	<li>In this research by Kwon et al., a correlation was noted between a decrease in extensibility during a hamstring length test (goniometry) and current knee pain (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/correlation-patellofemoral-pain-syndrome-pfps-hamstring-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kwon O, Yun M, and Lee W. (2014). Correlation between intrinsic patellofemoral pain syndrome in young adults and lower extremity biomechanics. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26: 961-964</a></li>
</ol>

Counter-nutation - posterior rotation of sacrum relative to ilium, and/or anterior rotation of ilium relative to sacrum.
<ul>
 	<li>The pelvic floor muscles are examples of muscle that may counter-nutate the sacrum.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_126335" align="aligncenter" width="400"]<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png"><img class=" wp-image-126335" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png" alt="Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint" width="400" height="967" /></a> Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint[/caption]

&nbsp;

Crossover (Study) Design - A type of longitudinal, repeated measures quasi-experimental design in which each group receives both treatments, but at different times. It is named "crossover" due to the patients "crossing-over" to the other treatment or sham group after a specified period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>This type of study has the advantage of every individual serving as their own control, which may reduce the influence of confounding variables.</li>
 	<li>Unfortunately, the design itself introduces the chances that anyone receiving the experimental variable in the first period will continue to be effected in the second period.</li>
</ul>
In a study by Senna et al., a cross-over design was used to investigate the difference load made on inter-set rest intervals (1).
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/strength-training-research-corner/heavy-vs-light-load-single-joint-exercise-performance-with-different-rest-periods/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Senna, G.W., Rodrigues, B.M., Sandy, Scudese, Bianco, A, &amp; Dantas, E.H.M. (2017). Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different intervals. Journal of Human Kinetics, 58, 197-206. </a></li>
</ol>

Cross-sectional Study - a research design that involves gathering data from a population or representative subset at a specific point in time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Karimi-Mobarake et al.(1) investigated the prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum among school children 7-11 years old in Iran.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/low-prevalence-of-genu-varum-and-valgum-among-elementary-school-children/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karimi-Mobarake, M., Kashefipour, A., Yousfnejad, Z. The prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum in primary school children in Iran 2003-2004. (2005) Journal of Medical Science 5(1). 52-54</a></li>
</ol>

Cytokine - A broad and loose category of small proteins that act through receptors, and are especially important to immune function (inflammation).
<ul>
 	<li>Cytokines include substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Their definite distinction from hormones is a topic of continued research.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Dependent variable - in research, this is the variable that is changed by the independent variable, most often this is the "outcome" of the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Cleland et al. (1), the independent variable is "thoracic manipulation," and the dependent variable is "lower trapezius muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/short-term-effects-lower-thoracic-manipulation-lower-trapezius-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cleland J, Selleck B, Stowell T, Brown L, Alberini S, St. Cyr H, Caron T. Short-term Effects of Thoracic Manipulation on Lower Trapezius Muscle Strength.  Journal of Manual &amp; Manipulative Therapy. 2004; 12(2): 82-90</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the trunk or center of the body

Example, the foot is at the distal end of the leg.

An arthrokinematic motion - a force applied to a body part that may result in the separation of joint surfaces, a reduction in intra-articular pressure, and/or an increase in intra-articlar space.

For example, to hang from one's hands (i.g. in preparation for a pull-up) results in a traction force on the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

An anatomical term of location; back or upper surface

Example, shoe laces may compress tissues on the dorsal surface of the foot

The "drawing-in" maneuver is a common cue used during exercise and rehabilitation programs. A light contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abominis</a> (and potentially the entire <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>) achieved by gently pulling the lower abdominal region away from one's waist band. This should have minimal effect on breathing, and should not be confused with a maximal contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abdominis</a> resulting in a "vacuum pose".
<ul>
 	<li>Research often refers to this maneuver as the "abdominal drawing-in maneuver"; abbreviated ADIM.</li>
</ul>
Development and introduction of this cue into practice is based on the pivotal research and resulting text:
<ol>
 	<li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization – A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
</ol>

Faulty or abnormal movement; an alteration of normal kinematics.

For example, joint stiffness or a reduction in arthrokinematics motion that results in limited osteokinematic range of motion - inadequate inferior glide of the femoral head resulting in limited abduction of the hip.

The seeping into, or abnormal collection of fluid in a body cavity.

For example, knee effusion describes swelling within the knee joint.

Note: the word "effusion" is used differently in medicine than it is used in reference to the movement (seeping out) of liquids and gases, for example in chemistry.

&nbsp;

A trait of body tissues that allows a tissue to return to its resting length or state after deformation or stretch.
Example:  Muscle is elastic tissue; many muscles will return to their resting length after being stretched to 150% of that length without any appreciable change in tissue quality.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a cell to return to its resting length after being stretched/lengthened.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: this term is often confused with extensibility. Elasticity is not the ability to stretch; it is the ability to return to normal length after being stretched. Muscle tissue, connective tissue and even nerve tissue have varying levels of elasticity.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Epithelial cell - One of the four basic cell types, found lining the body's cavities, blood vessels, organs and constitutes most gland tissue.  These cells are specialized to aid with absorption, secretion, or act as a barrier from foreign objects.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. S., &amp; Miller, L. (1998). Anatomy &amp; physiology. New York (NY): WCB/McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Equilibrium - a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, to maintain a neutral trunk while pushing or pulling a weight in one hand, your core musculature must balance the force by creating an equal amount of force in the opposite direction.</li>
</ul>

The study of causation, or origination. The word is commonly used in the medical professions, where it may refer to the study of why things occur, or the reason behind why things act a certain way.

For example, the etiology of low back pain is a complex subject, with multiple contributing factors and various structures implicated.

<div class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Evidence-based medicine (practice) is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient(client) values (2)."</div>
<ul>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">...the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (clients).  It involves the integration of at least (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve (1).</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. M., Haynes, R. B., &amp; Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.</li>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett D et al. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd edition. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p.1</li>
</ol>

Excitability: The ability of a cell to change in membrane conductance as a response to stimulation.

<ul>
 	<li>For example, muscle cells are specialized to react to a change in membrane potential with contraction, where as nerve cells are specialized to propagate a change in membrane potential along there axons and communicate that message to other tissues via neurotransmitters.
</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Excitation threshold: The level that a depolarization must reach for an action potential to occur.
<ul>
 	<li>The excitation threshold is a contributing factor to the "all-or-none" response of muscle and nerves cells to a stimulus.</li>
</ul>

Exercise Progression - Modification of an exercise with the intent of promoting adaptation by increasing demand. This can be accomplished by increasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise progression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise, or series of exercises that make it harder to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Progression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Exercise regression - The opposite of progression; that is, modification of an exercise with the intent of reducing demand. This can be accomplished by decreasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability. Generally, regressions are used to modify an exercise to the client's current level of ability, with the intent of improving form, motor learning and retention.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise regression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise or series of exercises that make it easier to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Regression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Experimental Research - Studies in which the researchers introduce the variable to be studied, with the intent of observing the outcome. This is different than observational research which observes the effect of a variable already present. Many texts also assert that experimental research should include randomization and ideally a control group, as is seen in Randomized Control Trials. Studies in which the variable is introduced by the researchers, but participants are not randomized may be considered Quasi-experimental research.
<ul>
 	<li>In this study by Esformes, the experimental variable was squat depth and the outcome measures observed were various performance measures related to power (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/back-squat-depth-lower-body-post-activation-potentiation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Esformes, J., &amp; Bampouras, T. (2013). Effect of back squat depth on lower-body postactivation potentiation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 2997-3000.</a></li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Extensibility: The ability of a cell to be stretched or lengthened without damage (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, most cells would rupture with even a modest stretch, but muscles can stretch up to 3 times their contracted length.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

False Negative - the proportion of negatives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as negative when the patient was actually positive)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

False Positive - the proportion of positives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as positive when the patient was actually negative)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

The function of fascia is to transmit force, provide support, and protect tissues. Fascia can effect motion by:
Transmitting force from one or more muscles (example: the thoracolumbar fascia)
Restricting motion in cases of adaptive shortening and/or adhesion to proximal structures (example: iliotibial band in cases of lower-leg dysfunction)
Elastic recoil after stretching can contribute to force production (example: plyometric exercise)

Note: There is evidence that fascia may house more receptors related to human movement than other tissues. In this way fascia may act as a motherboard for the nervous system

The fascial system does not contract or develop trigger points, and its capacity to adapt to stretching and or strengthening exercise is limited, especially when compared to the adaptive capacity of muscle tissue.

Fibromyalgia - A loosely defined diagnosis that is associated with a combination of widespread pain in combination with 2) tenderness at 11 or more of the 18 specific tender point sites. Consideration may also be given to the presence of psychosocial stressors and inflammatory disease in the patients history. Newer research suggests that fibromyalgia may be at least in part due to central sensitization of myofascial pain, often associated with trigger points (1 - 4).
<ol>
 	<li>Wolfe, F. (2018). Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome Criteria: Problems in Definition and Validity. Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Widespread Pain: From Construction to Relevant Recognition.</li>
 	<li>Wolfe, F., Smythe, H. A., Yunus, M. B., Bennett, R. M., Bombardier, C., Goldenberg, D. L., ... &amp; Fam, A. G. (1990). The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology, 33(2), 160-172.</li>
 	<li>Alonso-Blanco, C., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Morales-Cabezas, M., Zarco-Moreno, P., Ge, H. Y., &amp; Florez-García, M. (2011). Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. The Clinical journal of pain, 27(5), 405-413.</li>
 	<li>Staud, R., Nagel, S., Robinson, M. E., &amp; Price, D. D. (2009). Enhanced central pain processing of fibromyalgia patients is maintained by muscle afferent input: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. PAIN®, 145(1-2), 96-104.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.
Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.

An increase in joint stability via compressive forces resulting from muscular contraction and increased tension in fascial structures (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to core intrinsic stabilizers, the thoracolumbar fascia and the sacroiliac joint; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Form closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

The relative contribution of joint shape and structure to the stability of a joint (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to the "rough" articulating surfaces of the sacroiliac joint and the wedge shape of the sacrum; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Force closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

An arthrokinematic motion - linear motion across a joint surface parallel to the plane of the adjacent joint surface, just as your posterior moves relative to a "slide" in a park.

For example, the glide of facet joint in the spine during spinal flexion and extension, or the posterior glide of the humeral head that must accompany anterior roll to maintain congruence with glenoid fossa during shoulder horizontal adduction.

A plane joint (also called an arthrodial joint, gliding joint or plane articulation) is a synovial joint which allows only gliding movement in the plane of the articular surfaces. The opposed surfaces of the bones are flat or almost flat, with movement generally limited by tight capsules and ligaments. Plane joints are numerous, are most often small, and allow very little motion.  Examples include the carpal joints of the wrist, the tarsal joints of the ankle, and the facet joints of the spine.

"...refers to the measurement of angles, in particular the measurement of angles created at human joints by the bones of the body (1).

&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White. Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry 3rd Edition. Copyright (C) 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
</ol>

Ground reaction force (GRF) - The force exerted by the ground on the body in contact with it.

For example, when a runner's foot strikes the ground with a force equal to the mass of the individual times their acceleration due to gravity, momentum and muscular exertion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on the runner's foot.
<ul>
 	<li>GRF is often measured in research studies using force plates as a means of quantitatively measuring the force generated by an individual.</li>
</ul>

H-Band - Refers to the central zone of a sarcomere that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the sarcomere is a lighter portion of the A-band where there is no overlap between the thinner filaments (actin), and the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>Example, when a muscle contracts, actin and myosin cross-bridging occurs in the region of the A-band until the H-band is reached where no overlap occurs.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

A hinge joint (also called a ginglymus) is a synovial joint in which the articular surfaces fit one another in a way that only permits motion in one plane. Examples include the elbow, the knee (unless considered a condyloid joint) and the interphalangeal joints.

Holism (holistic) (biological holism) - (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that systems and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts.
<ul>
 	<li>Summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics": "The whole is more than the sum of its parts". However, the term "holism" was introduced into language by the South African statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. (Smuts J. C. 1987 [1926]. Holism and evolution. Cape Town: N &amp; S Press.)</li>
</ul>
Example: The Brookbush Institute promotes a holistic approach to human movement science, in which the muscular, fascial, articular and neural systems are not viewed as separable and all proximal segments are considered.

Hormone: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, transported via tissue fluids such as blood, to stimulate cells to "act."
<ul>
 	<li>Example: Growth hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain; stimulating growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in certain types of cells</li>
</ul>
The English physician E. H. Starling discovered in collaboration with the physiologist W. M. Bayliss secretin, the first hormone, in 1902. (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Henriksen, J. H., &amp; de Muckadell, O. S. (2000). Secretin, its discovery, and the introduction of the hormone concept. Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation, 60(6), 463-472.</li>
</ol>

A range of motion achieved by the patient/client that is more than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If an individual can place their forehead on their knees they are likely hypermobile at one, if not several joints

Example 2: 110° of shoulder external rotation would be considered hyper-mobile.

Hyperplasia is an increase in organic tissue size due to an adaptive increase in the number of cells per organ.
<ul>
 	<li>Although muscle hyperplasia has been noted in some animals, human muscle tissue does not seem to have this adaptive ability.</li>
</ul>

A condition of excessive tone of the skeletal muscles; increased resistance of muscle to passive stretching.  May be related to increased neural drive, synergistic dominance, trigger points, reflexive over-activity, and/or muscle length.
Example:  Individuals who exhibit ankle eversion and abduction during an overhead squat assessment likely have hypertonic fibularis (peroneal) muscles.

Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle mass/size due to increase in the volume and cross-sectional area (CSA) of individual muscle cells. The increase in cross-sectional area can be attributed to an an increase in contractile proteins and structural elements (myofibrillar hypertophy), as well as an increase in glycogen storage and elements related to metabolism (sarcoplasmic hypertophy). Hypertrophy is an adaptation of both cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers in response to progressive increases in workload.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Hypertrophy is not hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle size due to an adaptive increase in the number of muscle fibers/cells per muscle. This type of adaptation does not occur in human muscle tissue.</li>
</ul>

A range of motion achieved by a patient/client that is less than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If the end range of shoulder external rotation is reached and measured as 75° during goniometric assessment, the client/patient is exhibiting hypomobility of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a phenomenon; "scientific hypotheses" are generally constructed in a way that is testable or falsifiable.
<ul>
 	<li>Example: The hypothesis, "excessive knee valgus may be correlated with future knee pain and injury," has been the subject of several studies published over the last decade.</li>
</ul>

Diminished tone of skeletal muscles; diminished resistance of muscles to passive stretching.   May be related to inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, arthrokinematics inhibition and/or  increased resting length of muscle.
Example:  If your knees cave (hip adduction) during a squat or leg-press it is likely that your gluteus medius is hypotonic.

I-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the cell is lighter due to parallel arrangement of thinner filaments (actin), and no overlap with the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the I-bands will decrease in width and move closer to one another.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Independent variable - in research, this is the variable or phenomenon being manipulated in the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Ghanbari et al. (1), the independent variable is "knee joint mobilization", the dependent variable is "quadriceps muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/effect-knee-joint-mobilization-quadriceps-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ghanbari A. and Kamalgharibi S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences. 2(4): 186-191</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; toward the bottom (below)

Example, the mouth is inferior to the eyes

A reduction in neural drive, muscular activity, and or force output due to altered neuromuscular reflex.  Alterations in neuromuscular reflex may occur due to increases in muscle length (hypothesis: increased excitation threshold), altered reciprocal inhibition in response to increased antagonist tone, and or alterations in joint motion (arthrokinematics inhibition).

Making a whole of parts.

Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.

Intermuscular Coordination - Optimal timing and motor unit recruitment of agonists, antagonists, synergists, neutralizers, stabilizers and fixators.

Example: Role of Muscles during Hip Extension
<ul>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Prime Mover" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/prime-mover/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Prime Mover&lt;/div&gt;The muscle most responsible for a joint action under load -&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, the muscle that can produce the most force for a given joint action. Often this term is used synonymously with the term agonist. The prime mover as defined above, may or may not be the most active muscle for a joint action during activities of daily living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: the gluteus maximus is the most powerful hip extensor and therefore the prime mover; however, the hamstrings are likely the most active hip extensors during low level activities like walking or standing.">Prime Mover</a>:  <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/external/82855344.hd.mp4?s=54c3e7d98fb9d4e0af8d282c85ba9b3e">Gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Synergists" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/synergists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Synergists&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that assist the prime mover in performing a joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all muscles that can perform a joint action that are not the prime mover, are termed synergists.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The rectus abdominis is the prime mover of spinal flexion. All other muscles that can perform spinal flexion are synergists including – external obliques, internal obliques and psoas.">Synergists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/biceps-femoris/">Biceps femoris (long head)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/semitendinosus-and-semimembranosus/">semitendinosus, semimembranosus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">posterior head of adductor magnus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Antagonist" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/antagonists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Antagonist&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.">Antagonists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/psoas/">Psoas</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/iliacus/">iliacus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl/">tensor fascia latae</a> (TFL),<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/"> rectus femoris</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">anterior adductors (especially pectineus)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/sartorius/">sartorius</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Neutralizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/neutralizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Neutralizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose unwanted joint motions created by the prime mover and/or synergists, and/or muscles that prevent unwanted ancillary motion.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The teres minor and infraspinatus neutralize the internal rotation force created by the pectoralis major during horizontal adduction of the shoulder.">Neutralizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-minimus/">Gluteus minimus</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-medius/">anterior fibers of gluteus medius</a> neutralize external rotation force of <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/">gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Stabilizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/stabilizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Stabilizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles whose primary role is to improve arthrokinematics by maintaining optimal alignment of joint surfaces.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most often these muscles are the most intrinsic muscles of a joint, have a larger percentage of Type I muscle fibers and are rich in proprioceptors.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the rotator cuff act as stabilizers for most shoulder motions.">Stabilizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/deep-rotators-of-the-hip/">Deep rotators of hip</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Fixator" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/fixators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Fixator&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.">Fixators</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/">Intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-abdominis/">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/internal-obliques/">internal</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/external-obliques/">external obliques</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/quadratus-lumborum/">quadratus lumborum</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/erector-spinae/">erector spinae</a></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Example from: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/introduction-to-functional-anatomy/kinesiology-of-the-hip/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to Functional Anatomy: Kinesiology of the Hip</a>

Intramuscular coordination refers to the coordinated recruitment of motor units within a single muscle. This concept is used to explain increases in maximal strength and power; however, the coordinated and sequential recruitment of motor units is also essential to strength endurance and smooth coordinated motion.  Related terminology may include; motor unit recruitment, preferential recruitment, rate coding, sequence, etc..

Example: It is hypothesized that the "shaking" noted during a novice exercisers attempt at an activity like the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/ball-crunch-and-progressions/" target="_blank">stability ball crunch</a> may be due to relatively poor intramuscular coordination. Rather than smooth, sequential firing of rectus abdominis motor units, groups of motor units turn on and off in an uncoordinated manner.

Pertaining to the same side

Example, the quadratus lumborum performs ipsilateral flexion; lateral flexion toward the same side as the muscle.

An isoform, or variant, is a member of a set of similar proteins, that originate from the same gene, or gene family.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the variations in myosin heavy chain proteins (MHC I, MHC IIA, MHC IIB/X) that contribute to the characteristic differences between muscle fiber types.</li>
</ul>

“The Prime Assumption”
Everything crossing a joint will influence joint motion during every joint action.

A concept that has expanded over the past several decades to describe the integration of 4 body systems (muscle, joints, fascia and nerves), as well as, the coordinated function of various body segments (e.g. hip, knee and ankle) to produce motion. Kinetic referring to motion, and chain being an analogy for the interdependent link between systems.

Example, the posterior kinetic chain, refers to the integrated function of nerves, muscles, fascia and joints on the posterior side of the body.

The concept of the kinetic chain was originally adapted from the work of a mechanical engineer named Franz Reuleaux (Kinematics of Machinery (1875)) by Dr. Arthur Steindler in 1955 (Steindler A: Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas Co.. 1955).

Latent Trigger Point - A myofascial trigger point that is not painful at rest, only painful when palpated, and may or may not exhibit a characteristic referral pain pattern when palpated.  Latent trigger points do result in an acute point of sensitivity, in a taut band of muscle, and may restrict range of motion (1).

Note: Based on the clinical experience, the Brookbush Institute suggests that latent trigger points (sometimes refereed to as Tender Points) are more common than active trigger points. Further, they are likely addressed more often than trigger points; being the intended target of many soft-tissue mobility techniques.
<ol>
 	<li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,© 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the midline

Example, the anterior deltoid is lateral to the pectoralis major

Length/Tension Relationship - The amount of force generated by a muscle is dependent on sarcomere length.
<ul>
 	<li>The ability of sarcomere to maximally produce force occurs when sarcomere length results in optimal overlap between actin and myosin. Stretching a sarcomere decreases overlap between actin and myosin filaments and reduces force production (1-3). When length is less than optimal, actin from opposite ends overlap and interfere with cross-bridging, and myosin filament are compressed as they contact the the Z-disk also reducing force (4)</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Gordon, A. M., Huxley, A. F., &amp; Julian, F. J. (1966). The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. The Journal of physiology, 184(1), 170-192.</li>
 	<li>Edman, K. A. P. (1966). The relation between sarcomere length and active tension in isolated semitendinosus fibres of the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 183(2), 407-417.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L., Loren, G. J., &amp; Friden, J. (1994). In vivo measurement of human wrist extensor muscle sarcomere length changes. Journal of neurophysiology, 71(3), 874-881.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L. (2002). Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Levels of Evidence - Relative to evidence-based practice, levels of evidence are an attempt to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.  Note: levels of evidence do not supersede the critical evaluation of an experienced professional, and should be viewed as guidelines - a meta-analysis may be poorly constructed (Level IA), and a comparative study (Level III) may employ new technologies and a strong methodology.


The Levels of Evidence used by the Brookbush Institute, as described by Shekelle et al.(1):
<ul>
 	<li class="p1">IA - Evidence from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials</li>
 	<li class="p1">IB - Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIA - Evidence from at least one controlled study without randomization</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIB - Evidence from at least one other type of quasi-experimental study</li>
 	<li class="p1">III - Evidence from non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case-control studies</li>
 	<li class="p1">IV - Evidence from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, or both</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., &amp; Grimshaw, J. (1999). Developing clinical guidelines. Western Journal of Medicine, 170(6), 348.</li>
</ol>

Likelihood Ratios - Likilihood ratios are used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test. They use sensitivity and specificity to determine whether a test result usefully changes the practitioner's chance (probability) of reaching the correct assessment. Calculation of likelihood ratios is based on Baye's theorem.
<ul>
 	<li>Positive Likelihood Ratio (LR+) - The ratio of a positive test result in people with the pathology to a positive test result in people without the pathology.</li>
 	<li>Negative Likelihood Ratio (LR-) - The ratio of a negative test result in people with the pathology to a negative test result in people without the pathology.</li>
</ul>

Longitudinal Study - a research design that involves observing the same variables, several times over a period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Hewett et al. (1) is a type of longitudinal study called a "cohort study." This study investigated whether excessive knee valgus during landing was a predictor of knee injury risk in adolescent females over the course of a season.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/research-review-increased-valgus-during-landing-predicts-acl-injury-in-adolescent-female-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501</a></li>
</ol>

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