Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem (ISS)
The intrinsic stabilization subsystem is comprised of the transverse abdominis (TVA), internal obliques, pelvic floor, diaphragm, multifidus, and abdominal fascia (posterior layer), which is continuous with the investing fascia of the diaphragm and pelvic floor.
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Course Description: Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem
This course describes the intrinsic stabilization subsystem (ISS), a concept originally proposed by Dr. Brent Brookbush to integrate the work of professionals such as Vleeming et al. (1), Hodges et al. (20), Bergmark, A. (1989), Comerford and Mottram (2001), etc. This subsystem may also be referred to as intrinsic core muscles, deep core muscles, intrinsic stabilizers, stabilizing system, local stabilizers, and is related to the terms muscle sling, myofascial sling, myofascial synergy, core subsystem, myofascial lines, myofascial trains, anatomy trains, myofascial meridians, and deep front line.
The Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem is comprised of:
- Transverse Abdominis (TVA)
- Internal Obliques
- Pelvic Floor (Levator ani, coccygeus, and associated fascia)
- Diaphragm
- Multifidus
- Rotatores, Interspinales & Intertransversarii
- Abdominal Fascia (posterior layer)
- Continuous with investing fascia of the Diaphragm and Pelvic Floor
- Thoracolumbar Fascia (TLF) (anterior and middle layer)
- Potentially
- Quadratus Lumborum
- Psoas
- Potentially
Function (Summary)
- Concentric Function: None (potentially traction/decompression)
- Isometric Function: Stabilization of the lumbar spine, SIJ, and pelvis
- Eccentric Function: Contributes to eccentric deceleration of lumbar flexion and lateral flexion.
Common Maladaptive Behavior
- Under-active
Practical Application
- Core
- Quadruped Progressions (TVA Activation)
- Integrated Exercise
- N/A
The concepts and techniques described in this course may be particularly beneficial for neuromuscular re-education, coordination, motor pattern integration, whole-body strength, functional strength, and sports performance. Sports medicine professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, athletic trainers, etc.) should consider adding these exercises to their repertoire to improve the outcomes of their integrated exercise programs, sports performance programs, and therapeutic (rehabilitation) interventions.
Pre-approved Credits for:
Pre-approved for Continuing Education Credits for:
- Athletic Trainers
- Chiropractors
- Group Exercise Instructors
- Massage Therapists
- Occupational Therapists
- Personal Trainers
- Physical Therapists
- Physical Therapy Assistants
- Yoga Instructors
This Course Includes:
This Course Includes:
- AI Tutor
- Study Guide
- Text and Illustrations
- Research Review
- Technique Videos
- Sample Routine
- Practice Exam
- Pre-approved Final Exam
Additional Subsystem Courses
- Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)
- Posterior Oblique Subsystem (POS)
- Deep Longitudinal Subsystem (DLS)

Course Study Guide: Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem
Lecture: Review of Core Subsystems
Introduction: Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem
Research Corner9 Sub Sections
Summary of Research Findings
Practical Application5 Sub Sections
Videos: Isolated Activations7 Sub Sections
Videos: Reactive Activation 2 Sub Sections
Sample Program: Anterior Pelvic Tilt
Bibliography
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- Donald A. Neumann, Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations of Rehabilitation – 2nd Edition © 2012 Mosby, Inc.
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- Bogduk, N., & Macintosh, J. E. (1984). The applied anatomy of the thoracolumbar fascia. Spine , 9 (2), 164-170.
- Bogduk, N., and Lance T. Twomey. “Clincical anatomy of lumbar spine.” (1987).
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- Vleeming, A., Schuenke, M.D., Danneels,Willard, F.H. The functional coupling of the deep abdominal and paraspinal muscles: the effects of simulated paraspinal muscle contraction on force transfer to the middle and posterior layer of the thoracolumbar fascia. Journal of Anatomy, 2014. 225, 447-462
- Stevens, V.K., Vleeming, A., Bouche, KG., Mahieu, N.N., Vanderstraeten, G.G., Danneels, L.A. Electromyograhpic activity of trunk and hip muscles during stabilization exercises in four-point kneeling in healthy volunteers. European Spine Journal, 2007. 16: 711-718.
- DeRiddler E., Oosterwijck, J., Vleeming, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Danneels, L. (2013). Posterior muscle chain activity during various extension exercises: an observational study. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 14: 204.
- Transverse Abdominis
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1997). Feedforward contraction of transversus abdominis is not influenced by the direction of arm movement. Experimental brain research , 114 (2), 362-370
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1997). Contraction of the abdominal muscles associated with movement of the lower limb. Physical therapy , 77 (2), 132-142.
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1999). Transversus abdominis and the superficial abdominal muscles are controlled independently in a postural task. Neuroscience letters , 265 (2), 91-94.
- Saunders, S. W., Rath, D., & Hodges, P. W. (2004). Postural and respiratory activation of the trunk muscles changes with mode and speed of locomotion. Gait & posture , 20 (3), 280-290.
- Crommert, M. E., Ekblom, M. M., & Thorstensson, A. (2011). Activation of transversus abdominis varies with postural demand in standing. Gait & posture , 33 (3), 473-477.
- Barker, P. J., Briggs, C. A., & Bogeski, G. (2004). Tensile transmission across the lumbar fasciae in unembalmed cadavers: effects of tension to various muscular attachments. Spine , 29 (2), 129-138.
- Vleeming, A., Schuenke, M.D., Danneels,Willard, F.H. The functional coupling of the deep abdominal and paraspinal muscles: the effects of simulated paraspinal muscle contraction on force transfer to the middle and posterior layer of the thoracolumbar fascia. Journal of Anatomy, 2014. 225, 447-462
- van Wingerden, J. P., Vleeming, A., Buyruk, H. M., & Raissadat, K. (2004). Stabilization of the sacroiliac joint in vivo: verification of muscular contribution to force closure of the pelvis. European Spine Journal , 13 (3), 199-205.
- Vleeming, A., van Wingerden, J.P., Buyruk, H.M., Raissadat, K. Stabilization of the sacroiliac joint in vivo: verification of muscular contribution to force closure of the pelvis. European Spine Journal, 2004. 13: 199-205
- Willard, F.H., Vleeming, A., Schuenke, M.D., Danneels, L., Schleip, R. The thoracolumbar fascia: anatomy, function and clinical considerations. Journal of Anatomy, 2012. 221, 507-536.
- Vleeming A, Pool-Goudzward AL, Stoeckart R, et al. The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia: Its Function in Load Transfer from Spine to Legs. Spine 20:753-758, 1995
- Richardson, C., Snijders, C., Hides, J., Damen, L., Pas, M., Storm, J. (2002) The Relation Between the Transversus Abdominis Muscles, Sacroiliac Joint Mechanics, and Low Back Pain. Spine. 27 (4), 399-405
- Hodges, P. W., Cresswell, A. G., Daggfeldt, K., & Thorstensson, A. (2001). In vivo measurement of the effect of intra-abdominal pressure on the human spine. Journal of biomechanics , 34 (3), 347-353.
- Hodges, P. W., Eriksson, A. M., Shirley, D., & Gandevia, S. C. (2005). Intra-abdominal pressure increases stiffness of the lumbar spine. Journal of biomechanics , 38 (9), 1873-1880.
- Stokes, I. A., Gardner-Morse, M. G., & Henry, S. M. (2010). Intra-abdominal pressure and abdominal wall muscular function: spinal unloading mechanism. Clinical Biomechanics , 25 (9), 859-866.
- Morris, S. L., Lay, B., & Allison, G. T. (2013). Transversus abdominis is part of a global not local muscle synergy during arm movement. Human movement science , 32 (5), 1176-1185.
- Morris, S. L., Lay, B., & Allison, G. T. (2012). Corset hypothesis rebutted—Transversus abdominis does not co-contract in unison prior to rapid arm movements. Clinical biomechanics , 27 (3), 249-254.
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1997). Relationship between limb movement speed and associated contraction of the trunk muscles. Ergonomics , 40 (11), 1220-1230.
- Hodges, P. W., Cresswell, A. G., Daggfeldt, K., & Thorstensson, A. (2000). Three dimensional preparatory trunk motion precedes asymmetrical upper limb movement. Gait & posture , 11 (2), 92-101.
- Hodges, P., Richardson, C. (1996). Inefficient Muscular Stabilization of the Lumbar Spine Associated With Low Back Pain: A Motor Control Evaluation of Transverse Abdominis. Spine , 21 (22), 2640-2650
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1998). Delayed postural contraction of transversus abdominis in low back pain associated with movement of the lower limb. Clinical Spine Surgery , 11 (1), 46-56.
- Hodges, P. W., & Richardson, C. A. (1999). Altered trunk muscle recruitment in people with low back pain with upper limb movement at different speeds. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation , 80 (9), 1005-1012.
- Hodges, P. W. (2001). Changes in motor planning of feedforward postural responses of the trunk muscles in low back pain. Experimental brain research , 141 (2).
- Hodges, P. W., Moseley, G. L., Gabrielsson, A., & Gandevia, S. C. (2003). Experimental muscle pain changes feedforward postural responses of the trunk muscles. Experimental Brain Research , 151 (2), 262-271.
- Hodges, P. W., & Moseley, G. L. (2003). Pain and motor control of the lumbopelvic region: effect and possible mechanisms. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 13 (4), 361-370.
- Unsgaard-Tøndel, M., Nilsen, T. I. L., Magnussen, J., & Vasseljen, O. (2012). Is activation of transversus abdominis and obliquus internus abdominis associated with long-term changes in chronic low back pain? A prospective study with 1-year follow-up. Br J Sports Med , 46 (10), 729-734.
- Marshall, P., & Murphy, B. (2010). Delayed abdominal muscle onsets and self-report measures of pain and disability in chronic low back pain. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 20 (5), 833-839.
- Jansen, J., Weir, A., Dénis, R., Mens, J., Backx, F., & Stam, H. (2010). Resting thickness of transversus abdominis is decreased in athletes with longstanding adduction-related groin pain. Manual therapy , 15 (2), 200-205.
- Ferreira, P. H., Ferreira, M. L., Maher, C. G., Refshauge, K., Herbert, R. D., & Hodges, P. W. (2010). Changes in recruitment of transversus abdominis correlate with disability in people with chronic low back pain. British Journal of Sports Medicine , bjsports61515.
- Hides, J. A., Boughen, C. L., Stanton, W. R., Strudwick, M. W., & Wilson, S. J. (2010). A magnetic resonance imaging investigation of the transversus abdominis muscle during drawing-in of the abdominal wall in elite Australian Football League players with and without low back pain. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy , 40 (1), 4-10.
- Hodges, P., Richardson, C., & Jull, G. (1996). Evaluation of the relationship between laboratory and clinical tests of transversus abdominis function. Physiotherapy Research International , 1 (1), 30-40.
- Bjerkefors, A., Ekblom, M. M., Josefsson, K., & Thorstensson, A. (2010). Deep and superficial abdominal muscle activation during trunk stabilization exercises with and without instruction to hollow. Manual Therapy , 15 (5), 502-507.
- McGalliard, M. K., Dedrick, G. S., Brismée, J. M., Cook, C. E., Apte, G. G., & Sizer, P. S. (2010). Changes in transversus abdominis thickness with use of the abdominal drawing-in maneuver during a functional task. PM&R , 2 (3), 187-194.
- Pinto, R. Z., Ferreira, P. H., Franco, M. R., Ferreira, M. L., Ferreira, M. C., Teixeira-Salmela, L. F., & Maher, C. G. (2011). Effect of 2 lumbar spine postures on transversus abdominis muscle thickness during a voluntary contraction in people with and without low back pain. Journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics , 34 (3), 164-172.
- Tsao, H., Druitt, T. R., Schollum, T. M., & Hodges, P. W. (2010). Motor training of the lumbar paraspinal muscles induces immediate changes in motor coordination in patients with recurrent low back pain. The journal of pain , 11 (11), 1120-1128.
- Chon, S. C., Chang, K. Y., & You, J. S. H. (2010). Effect of the abdominal draw-in manoeuvre in combination with ankle dorsiflexion in strengthening the transverse abdominal muscle in healthy young adults: a preliminary, randomised, controlled study. Physiotherapy , 96 (2), 130-136.
- Chon SC, You JH, Saliba SA. (2012). Cocontraction of ankle dorsiflexors and transversus abdominis function in patients with low back pain. Journal of Athletic Training . 47(4): 379-389
- Gorbet, N., Selkow, N. M., Hart, J. M., & Saliba, S. (2010). No difference in transverse abdominis activation ratio between healthy and asymptomatic low back pain patients during therapeutic exercise. Rehabilitation research and practice , 2010 .
- Okubo, Y., Kaneoka, K., Imai, A., Shiina, I., Tatsumura, M., Izumi, S., & Miyakawa, S. (2010). Electromyographic analysis of transversus abdominis and lumbar multifidus using wire electrodes during lumbar stabilization exercises. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy , 40 (11), 743-750.
- França, F. R., Burke, T. N., Caffaro, R. R., Ramos, L. A., & Marques, A. P. (2012). Effects of muscular stretching and segmental stabilization on functional disability and pain in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial . Journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics , 35 (4), 279-285.
- França, F. R., Burke, T. N., Hanada, E. S., & Marques, A. P. (2010). Segmental stabilization and muscular strengthening in chronic low back pain: a comparative study. Clinics , 65 (10), 1013-1017.
- Gong, W. (2013). Correlations between transversus abdominis thickness, lumbar stability, and balance of female university students. Journal of physical therapy science , 25 (6), 681-683.
- Internal Obliques
- McGill, S. M. (1991). Kinetic potential of the lumbar trunk musculature about three orthogonal orthopaedic axes in extreme postures . Spine , 16 (7), 809-815.
- McGill, S. M. (1991). Electromyographic activity of the abdominal and low back musculature during the generation of isometric and dynamic axial trunk torque : implications for lumbar mechanics. Journal of Orthopaedic Research , 9 (1), 91-103.
- McGill, S. M. (1992). A myoelectrically based dynamic three-dimensional model to predict loads on lumbar spine tissues during lateral bending. Journal of biomechanics , 25 (4), 395-414.
- McGill, S. M. (1996). A revised anatomical model of the abdominal musculature for torso flexion efforts. Journal of biomechanics , 29 (7), 973-977.
- Danneels, L. A., Vanderstraeten, G. G., Cambier, D. C., Witvrouw, E. E., Stevens, V. K., & De Cuyper, H. J. (2001). A functional subdivision of hip, abdominal, and back muscles during asymmetric lifting. Spine , 26 (6), E114-E121.
- Juker, D., McGILL, S., Kropf, P., & Steffen, T. (1998). Quantitative intramuscular myoelectric activity of lumbar portions of psoas and the abdominal wall during a wide variety of tasks. Medicine and science in sports and exercise , 30 (2), 301-310.
- Bogduk, N., & Macintosh, J. E. (1984). The applied anatomy of the thoracolumbar fascia. Spine , 9 (2), 164-170.
- Ng, J. K. F., Richardson, C. A., Parnianpour, M., & Kippers, V. (2002). EMG activity of trunk muscles and torque output during isometric axial rotation exertion: a comparison between back pain patients and matched controls. Journal of Orthopaedic Research , 20 (1), 112-121.
- Ng, J. K. F., Richardson, C. A., Parnianpour, M., & Kippers, V. (2002). Fatigue-related changes in torque output and electromyographic parameters of trunk muscles during isometric axial rotation exertion: an investigation in patients with back pain and in healthy subjects. Spine , 27 (6), 637-646.
- O’sullivan, P. B., Grahamslaw, K. M., Kendell, M., Lapenskie, S. C., Möller, N. E., & Richards, K. V. (2002). The effect of different standing and sitting postures on trunk muscle activity in a pain-free population. Spine , 27 (11), 1238-1244.
- Hungerford, B., Gilleard, W., Hodges, P. (2003) Evidence of altered lumbopelvic muscle recruitment in the presence of sacroiliac joint pain. Spine 28(14), 1593-1600
- Diaphragm
- Hodges, P. W., Gurfinkel, V. S., Brumagne, S., Smith, T. C., & Cordo, P. C. (2002). Coexistence of stability and mobility in postural control: evidence from postural compensation for respiration. Experimental Brain Research , 144 (3), 293-302.
- Hodges, P. W., Eriksson, A. M., Shirley, D., & Gandevia, S. C. (2005). Intra-abdominal pressure increases stiffness of the lumbar spine. Journal of biomechanics , 38 (9), 1873-1880.
- Hodges, P., Holm, A. K., Holm, S., Ekström, L., Cresswell, A., Hansson, T., & Thorstensson, A. (2003). Intervertebral stiffness of the spine is increased by evoked contraction of transversus abdominis and the diaphragm: in vivo porcine studies. Spine , 28 (23), 2594-2601.
- Hodges, P. W., Butler, J. E., McKenzie, D. K., & Gandevia, S. C. (1997). Contraction of the human diaphragm during rapid postural adjustments. The Journal of physiology , 505 (Pt 2), 539-548
- Hodges, P. W., & Gandevia, S. C. (2000). Changes in intra-abdominal pressure during postural and respiratory activation of the human diaphragm. Journal of applied Physiology , 89 (3), 967-976.
- Hodges, P. W., & Gandevia, S. C. (2000). Activation of the human diaphragm during a repetitive postural task. The Journal of physiology , 522 (1), 165-175.
- Kolar, P., Sulc, J., Kyncl, M., Sanda, J., Neuwirth, J., Bokarius, A. V., Kriz, J. & Kobesova, A. (2010). Stabilizing function of the diaphragm: dynamic MRI and synchronized spirometric assessment. Journal of Applied Physiology , 109 (4), 1064-1071
- Kolář, P., Šulc, J., Kynčl, M., Šanda, J., Čakrt, O., Andel, R., … & Kobesová, A. (2012). Postural function of the diaphragm in persons with and without chronic low back pain. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy , 42 (4), 352-362.
- Janssens, L., Brumagne, S., Polspoel, K., Troosters, T., & McConnell, A. (2010). The effect of inspiratory muscles fatigue on postural control in people with and without recurrent low back pain. Spine , 35 (10), 1088-1094.
- McGill, S. M., Sharratt, M. T., & Seguin, J. P. (1995). Loads on spinal tissues during simultaneous lifting and ventilatory challenge. Ergonomics , 38 (9), 1772-1792.
- Vostatek, P., Novak, D., Rychnovský, T., & Wild, J. (2010, November). Diaphragm postural function analysis using magnetic resonance. In Information Technology and Applications in Biomedicine (ITAB), 2010 10th IEEE International Conference on (pp. 1-4). IEEE.
- O’Sullivan, P. B., Beales, D. J., Beetham, J. A., Cripps, J., Graf, F., Lin, I. B., … & Avery, A. (2002). Altered motor control strategies in subjects with sacroiliac joint pain during the active straight-leg-raise test. Spine , 27 (1), E1-E8
- Janssens, L., Brumagne, S., McConnell, A. K., Hermans, G., Troosters, T., & Gayan-Ramirez, G. (2013). Greater diaphragm fatigability in individuals with recurrent low back pain. Respiratory physiology & neurobiology , 188 (2), 119-123.
- Hodges, P. W., Heijnen, I., & Gandevia, S. C. (2001). Postural activity of the diaphragm is reduced in humans when respiratory demand increases. The Journal of physiology , 537 (3), 999-1008.
- McGill, S. M., Sharratt, M. T., & Seguin, J. P. (1995). Loads on spinal tissues during simultaneous lifting and ventilatory challenge. Ergonomics , 38 (9), 1772-1792.
- Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620
- Zazulak, B. T., Hewett, T. E., Reeves, N. P., Goldberg, B., and Cholewicki, J. (2007). Deficits in neuromuscular control of the trunk predict knee injury risk. The American journal of sports medicine, 35(7), 1123-1130
- Mehling, W. E., Hamel, K. A., Acree, M., Byl, N., & Hecht, F. M. (2005). Randomized, controlled trial of breath therapy for patients with chronic low-back pain. Alternative therapies in health and medicine , 11 (4), 44.
- Pelvic Floor
- Hodges, P. W., Sapsford, R., & Pengel, L. H. M. (2007). Postural and respiratory functions of the pelvic floor muscles. Neurourology and urodynamics , 26 (3), 362-371.
- Sapsford, R. R., Hodges, P. W., Richardson, C. A., Cooper, D. H., Markwell, S. J., & Jull, G. A. (2001). Co‐activation of the abdominal and pelvic floor muscles during voluntary exercises. Neurourology and urodynamics , 20 (1), 31-42.
- Madill, S. J., & McLean, L. (2006). Relationship between abdominal and pelvic floor muscle activation and intravaginal pressure during pelvic floor muscle contractions in healthy continent women. Neurourology and urodynamics , 25 (7), 722-730.
- Tu, F. F., Holt, J., Gonzales, J., & Fitzgerald, C. M. (2008). Physical therapy evaluation of patients with chronic pelvic pain: a controlled study. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology , 198 (3), 272-e1.
- Critchley, D. (2002). Instructing pelvic floor contraction facilitates transversus abdominis thickness increase during low‐abdominal hollowing. Physiotherapy research international , 7 (2), 65-75.
- Culligan, P. J., Scherer, J., Dyer, K., Priestley, J. L., Guingon-White, G., Delvecchio, D., & Vangeli, M. (2010). A randomized clinical trial comparing pelvic floor muscle training to a Pilates exercise program for improving pelvic muscle strength. International urogynecology journal , 21 (4), 401-408.
- Multifidus
- Macintosh, J. E., Valencia, F., Bogduk, N., & Munro, R. R. (1986). The morphology of the human lumbar multifidus. Clinical biomechanics , 1 (4), 196-204.
- Macintosh, J. E., & Bogduk, N. (1986). The biomechanics of the lumbar multifidus. Clinical biomechanics , 1 (4), 205-213.
- Bogduk, N., Macintosh, J. E., & Pearcy, M. J. (1992). A universal model of the lumbar back muscles in the upright position. Spine , 17 (8), 897-913.
- Crisco Iii, J. J., & Panjabi, M. M. (1991). The intersegmental and multisegmental muscles of the lumbar spine: a biomechanical model comparing lateral stabilizing potential. Spine , 16 (7), 793-799
- Ward, S. R., Kim, C. W., Eng, C. M., Gottschalk IV, L. J., Tomiya, A., Garfin, S. R., & Lieber, R. L. (2009). Architectural analysis and intraoperative measurements demonstrate the unique design of the multifidus muscle for lumbar spine stability. The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. American volume. , 91 (1), 176.
- Amonoo-Kuofi, H. S. (1983). The density of muscle spindles in the medial, intermediate and lateral columns of human intrinsic postvertebral muscles. Journal of anatomy , 136 (Pt 3), 509.
- Boyd-Clark, L. C., Briggs, C. A., & Galea, M. P. (2002). Muscle spindle distribution, morphology, and density in longus colli and multifidus muscles of the cervical spine. Spine , 27 (7), 694-701.
- Andersson, E. A., Grundström, H., & Thorstensson, A. (2002). Diverging intramuscular activity patterns in back and abdominal muscles during trunk rotation. Spine , 27 (6), E152-E160.
- Cholewicki, J., Panjabi, M. M., & Khachatryan, A. (1997). Stabilizing function of trunk flexor‐extensor muscles around a neutral spine posture. Spine , 22 (19), 2207-2212.
- Danneels, L. A., Vanderstraeten, G. G., Cambier, D. C., Witvrouw, E. E., Stevens, V. K., & De Cuyper, H. J. (2001). A functional subdivision of hip, abdominal, and back muscles during asymmetric lifting. Spine , 26 (6), E114-E121.
- Ng, J. K., Richardson, C. A., & Jull, G. A. (1997). Electromyographic amplitude and frequency changes in the iliocostalis lumborum and multifidus muscles during a trunk holding test. Physical Therapy , 77 (9), 954-961.
- O’sullivan, P. B., Grahamslaw, K. M., Kendell, M., Lapenskie, S. C., Möller, N. E., & Richards, K. V. (2002). The effect of different standing and sitting postures on trunk muscle activity in a pain-free population. Spine , 27 (11), 1238-1244.
- Dofferhof, A. S., & Vink, P. (1985). The stabilising function of the mm. iliocostales and the mm. multifidi during walking. Journal of anatomy , 140 (Pt 2), 329.
- Moseley, G. L., Hodges, P. W., & Gandevia, S. C. (2002). Deep and superficial fibers of the lumbar multifidus muscle are differentially active during voluntary arm movements. Spine , 27 (2), E29-E36.
- Barker, K. L., Shamley, D. R., & Jackson, D. (2004). Changes in the cross-sectional area of multifidus and psoas in patients with unilateral back pain: the relationship to pain and disability. Spine , 29 (22), E515-E519.
- Kim, W. H., Lee, S. H., & Lee, D. Y. (2011). Changes in the cross-sectional area of multifidus and psoas in unilateral sciatica caused by lumbar disc herniation. Journal of Korean Neurosurgical Society , 50 (3), 201-204.
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