Introduction

Dynamic Chop Pattern

Power Chop (Medicine Ball Smash)

Crunch and Catch (Power Exercise Regression)

Research Summary

Motor Behavior and Recommendations

Rotation & Assessment

Outcome

Progressions and Form

Kneeling Chop Pattern

Standing Static Chop

Single-leg Chop Pattern

Wood Chop Exercise and Progressions

NASM

ACSM

AFAA

CanFitPro

PTAGlobal

ISSA

REPSI

PACE

WITS

AUSactive

CIMSPA

AUSPHYSIO

TPTA

NYPT

AOTA

Chop Pattern and Progressions

This course discusses the variations, <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a>, and <a id="exercise-regression" data-tip="1178" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-regression" class="glossary">regressions</a> of the wood chop exercise. This includes tips and cues for upper body <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">form</a>, lower body <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">form</a>, and arm position (straight arms and bent elbows), as well as variations with bands and cable pulleys. Although this exercise is common in fitness centers and among personal trainers as part of core workouts, it is an exercise that is rarely taught well. This is unfortunate because the wood chop can be an excellent rotational movement (or anti-rotational movement) for core muscles (and when performed with <a id="a-band" data-tip="1347" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/a-band" class="glossary">a band</a>, can be a very versatile exercise).&#xA0;&#xA0;
Discussion of core <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> anatomy, core subsystem <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>, down chop variations, and inclusion in corrective, fitness, performance, and rehabilitation programming is included in this course. Further, programming the chop exercise during core workouts may aid in setting up more advanced exercises like standing cable chest press, step-up to curl and press, sled push, and variations of medicine ball chest passing. Performing the wood chop exercise with the addition of the <a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1580" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">drawing-in</a> maneuver may aid in integrating synergies including the <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> Oblique Subsystem, <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">Posterior</a> Oblique Subsystem, and Intrinsic Stabilization Subsystem, and may contribute to corrective exercise programs designed to address <a id="movement-impairment" data-tip="1576" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/movement-impairment" class="glossary">movement impairments</a> like an <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">Anterior</a> pelvic tilt or knee varus, and may be included in physical rehabilitation programs for addressing low back pain, hip pain, knee pain, or sacroiliac dysfunction.
Movement and sports medicine professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider adding the wood chop exercise to their repertoire with the intent of improving patient/client outcomes for their <a id="integration" data-tip="1473" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integrated</a> performance exercise programs and therapeutic (rehabilitation) interventions.
<h4>Down Chop</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/kneeling-chop-pattern">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/static-standing-chop-pattern">Standing Chop</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/single-leg-chop-pattern">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/dynamic-chop-pattern">Dynamic Chop</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Reactive Progressions</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/core-transverse-abdominis-reactive-integration-crunch-catch">Crunch and Catch</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Subsystem Integration:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/anterior-oblique-subsystem-integration-step-up-to-chest-press">Anterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
</ul>
<img title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating the kneeling wood chop" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1646162623-kneeling-chop.jpeg" alt="Kneeling chop progression targeting the anterior oblique subsystem">

Course Description: Wood Chop Exercise Progressions

<h3>Target Musculature:</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rectus abdominis</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">External obliques</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/internal-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Internal obliques</a></li>
 <li>Transverse abdominis</li>
 <li>Gluteus Medius</li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Maximus</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Target Subsystem:</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Signs of Under-activity (Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction):</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/sign-clusters-compensation-patterns-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat Assessment:</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-9-anterior-pelvic-tilt-excessive-lordosis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Excessive Lordosis/Anterior Pelvic Tilt</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-17-sign-clusters-posterior-pelvic-tilt-butt-wink-and-inadequate-forward-lean-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Inadequate Forward Lean</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-15-sign-clusters-asymmetrical-weight-shift" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Asymmetrical Weight Shift</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees Bow In</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-7-knees-bow-out" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Knees Bow Out</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Acute Variables:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Sets: 1- 3</li>
 <li>Repetitions: 1-20 (depending on the phase of training)</li>
 <li>Frequency:
 <ul>
 <li>Strength: 2 - 3 days/week</li>
 <li>Corrective/Therapeutic: Up to 1-2 submaximal sets performed 1-2 times daily</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Sample Program (Asymmetrical Weight Shift Left)</h3>
Mobility
<ul>
 <li><a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">Release</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl-self-administered-release" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Tensor fascia latae (TFL) release</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/adductor-sa-static-release" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Adductor release</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/piriformis-sa-static-release" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Right Piriformis release</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/adductor-magnus-posterior-sa-static-release" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Right Adductor magnus release</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Mobilization
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/open-books-self-administered-spine-rotational-mobilizations" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Open Books (Right Side Down)</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Lengthen
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/kneeling-hip-flexor-static-stretch" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Kneeling hip flexor static stretch</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/standing-adductor-stretch" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Adductor static stretch</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
Activity
<ul>
 <li>Isolated Activation
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/quick-glute-activation-circuit" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Glute activation circuit</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/transverse-abdominis-tva-isolated-activation-quadruped" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Transverse abdominis activation</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Core <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">Integration</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/static-standing-chop-pattern" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Leg Back Static Standing Chop Pattern</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/ultimate-glute-bridge" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ultimate Glute Bridge</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Subsystem <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">Integration</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/static-lunge-to-row-posterior-oblique-subsystem-integration-progressions" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Left Leg Front Static Lunge to Row</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>

<ul>
 <li>Intent: The chop pattern and <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a> may be particularly effective for improving the synergistic recruitment (<a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>) of the <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> trunk musculature and the glute complex. This may also be referred to as <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a> of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem (POS)</a>.</li>
 <li>Recommendation: The Brookbush Institute recommends that <a id="mobility" data-tip="1455" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/mobility" class="glossary">mobility</a> issues are addressed prior to active techniques and that isolated <a id="activation-technique" data-tip="1531" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/activation-technique" class="glossary">activation techniques</a> (e.g. <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-medius-activation-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Medius Activation</a>) precede core <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a> techniques, such as the chop pattern. However, based on the research available, integrating the chop pattern into an exercise intervention is likely to be effective for general strengthening and stabilization of the lumbar spine, pelvis, and hip.</li>
 <li>Kinematics and Recruitment: Trunk rotation exercise may result in the same trunk ROM as throwing, and resisting the upper extremity in a standing position will result in sufficient recruitment of trunk musculature to increase strength and hypertrophy. Further, the activity of superficial trunk musculature increases in a direction-specific manner, but the activity of deep stabilizers is not direction-specific.</li>
 <li>Assessment: Research studies have demonstrated that the chop pattern is <a id="sensitivity" data-tip="1227" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/sensitivity" class="glossary">sensitive</a> enough to demonstrate differences in core performance between fit individuals, <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> enough to consistently determine 1 - 20 repetition maximums, has demonstrated good test/re-test <a id="reliability" data-tip="1515" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliability</a>, and is moderately correlated with <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/plank-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">side-plank</a> endurance but not lumbar extensor endurance (Biering-S&#xF8;rensen <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>).</li>
 <li>Outcomes: Chop patterns are likely most effective when incorporated into a conventional routine for additional <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a>, strength, and/or <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and may not result in additional benefits for the rehabilitation of lower back dysfunction.</li>
</ul>

 Research Summary

Research Review

The chop pattern and <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a> may be particularly effective for improving the synergistic recruitment (<a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>) of the <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> trunk musculature and the glute complex. This may also be referred to as <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a> of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Posterior Oblique Subsystem (POS)</a>.
As described in the Brookbush Institute&apos;s predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1469" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">model</a> of <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a> and demonstrated in a growing body of research, the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external obliques</a> (included in the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Anterior Oblique Subsystem (AOS)</a>) are <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> to a complex set of altered behaviors that likely imply <a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1643" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">synergistic dominance</a> (long/over-active) in those exhibiting dysfunction (1-9). This includes research demonstrating that low back pain and fatigue may result in an increase in <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external oblique</a> activity, relative to a decrease in <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/internal-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">internal oblique</a> and transverse abdominis activity (1-4). Swayback <a id="posture" data-tip="1661" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postures</a> may result in a decrease in the activity of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external obliques</a> during static standing (5-6), and low back pain results in a decrease in <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> activity during un-resisted lumbar rotation (2, 9). Studies also show that pain may result in an increase in activity (bilaterally) to stabilize the spine (bracing) during functional tasks, like bending forward and lifting (3, 6, 8-9). Additionally, chronic low back pain patients typically cannot differentiate between transverse abdominis and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> activation when asked to perform the abdominal <a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1580" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">drawing-in</a> maneuver (<a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1588" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">ADIM</a>) (4). The <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external obliques</a> exhibiting less activity during static <a id="posture" data-tip="1661" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postures</a> and more activity during resisted motions has led to various hypotheses; however, based on the Brookbush Institute&apos;s review of additional muscles and the development of predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1471" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">models</a> of dysfunction, these behavior seems to fit a category of altered behavior referred to as &quot;synergistic dominance&quot; or &quot;long/over-active&quot;.
<img alt="Muscle of the anterior oblique subsystem" title="The hip flexor complex and abdominial muscles, part of the anterior oblique subsystem" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649099601-aos.jpg">
Also described in the Brookbush Institute&apos;s predictive <a id="model" data-tip="1471" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/model" class="glossary">models</a> of <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)</a>, and demonstrated in a growing body of research, the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a> and gluteus medius are <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> to under-activity in those exhibiting dysfunction (10 - 26). This reduction in activity has been correlated with pain and dysfunction of the lumbar spine, sacroiliac joint (SIJ), <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a>, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/knee" target="_blank" rel="noopener">knee</a>, and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/ankle-joint-talocrural-subtalor-tibiofibular-joints" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ankle</a> (13-18). Even in the absence of pain, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a> and gluteus medius weakness has been correlated with <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-6-knees-bow-in-breakdown" target="_blank" rel="noopener">functional knee valgus</a>, a loss of hip extension, an <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/anterior-pelvic-tilt-break-down-workshop-snippet" target="_blank" rel="noopener">anterior pelvic tilt</a>, and/or a lack of <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-8-excessive-forward-lean" target="_blank" rel="noopener">forward lean</a> during running (19 - 23). Research also demonstrates that the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a> and gluteus medius respond well to <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> interventions, resulting in improvements in pain, reduced risk of injury, and/or improved kinematics during gait, running, and squatting (14, 15, 20, 21, 25, 26).
The posterior-directed and rotational forces created by the chop pattern exercise are relatively unique when considered relative to the repertoire of commonly recommended exercises. These forces challenge the trunk flexors and rotators, the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/hip-joint" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hip</a> extensors and external rotators, and the segmental stabilizers of the lumbar spine, sacroiliac joint, and pelvis. This aids in stimulating synergistic recruitment of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external obliques</a> (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/anterior-oblique-subsystem-aos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">AOS</a>), gluteus medius, and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a> (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/posterior-oblique-subsystem-pos" target="_blank" rel="noopener">POS</a>), as well as the transverse abdominis (<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ISS</a>). Although these forces are not commonly replicated during exercise interventions, they are noted during a variety of functional tasks that involve &quot;pushing while standing, walking or running&quot;; for example, opening a heavy door or pushing a defender out of position. The Brookbush Institute recommends that <a id="mobility" data-tip="1455" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/mobility" class="glossary">mobility</a> issues are addressed prior to active techniques and that isolated <a id="activation-technique" data-tip="1531" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/activation-technique" class="glossary">activation techniques</a> (e.g. <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-medius-activation-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Gluteus Medius Activation</a>) precede core <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a> techniques, such as the chop pattern. However, based on the research available, integrating the chop pattern into an exercise intervention is likely to be effective for general strengthening and stabilization of the lumbar spine, pelvic and hip.
<h3>Chop Pattern Specific Research</h3>
Despite mention in several peer-reviewed secondary sources (27 - 32), relatively few studies have investigated the chop pattern.

<h3>Rotation: Kinematic and Muscle Activity</h3>
Kinematics and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> activity may be implied by studies investigating similar exercises that include trunk rotation. Stodden et al. demonstrated that the kinematics of seated rotation, Russian twists, crunches with rotation, and rotational medicine ball throws have a similar trunk rotation range of motions (ROM) as those exhibited by NCAA Division I baseball players throwing a baseball (33). Note, the seated twists performed in this study was similar to a dynamic chop without contribution of the lower extremity. Pope et al. demonstrated that <a id="axial-skeleton" data-tip="1292" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/axial-skeleton" class="glossary">axial</a> rotation against resistance resulted in a significant increase in direction-specific <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external oblique</a> activity; however, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/internal-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">internal oblique</a>, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a>, and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/erector-spinae" target="_blank" rel="noopener">erector spinae</a> activity also increased and was not direction-specific. Further, the Valsalva maneuver increased <a id="torque" data-tip="1294" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/torque" class="glossary">torque</a> produced but did not increase trunk <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> activity (34). Tarnanen et al. compared the activity of trunk muscles during pressing with the arms in various directions from a standing position. Recruitment of trunk muscles matched expected recruitment based on the direction of force, e.g. <a id="bilateral" data-tip="1552" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/bilateral" class="glossary">bilateral</a> shoulder extension increased <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/rectus-abdominis-pyramidalis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rectus abdominis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">external oblique</a> activity, <a id="bilateral" data-tip="1552" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/bilateral" class="glossary">bilateral</a> horizontal abduction increased <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/erector-spinae" target="_blank" rel="noopener">erector spinae</a> and multifidus activity and pressing with one arm resulted in rotational forces that increased <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/external-obliques" target="_blank" rel="noopener">oblique</a> activity. The %MVIC was high enough during all movements to suggest that resisted arm motion in a standing position was sufficient to increase trunk <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> strength and endurance (35). Last, Kim et al., investigated the effects of adding sudden, external, <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> rotational perturbations against outstretched arms in an upright sitting <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> to a conventional 8-week strength training program. The findings suggest that incorporating right rotation reactivity improved the strength and reactivity of rotation in both directions (36). These studies suggest that trunk rotation exercise may result in the same ROM as throwing, and resisting the upper extremity in a standing position will result in sufficient recruitment of trunk musculature to increase strength and hypertrophy. Further, the activity of superficial trunk musculature increases in a direction-specific manner, but the activity of deep stabilizers is not direction-specific, which may contribute to <a id="bilateral" data-tip="1552" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/bilateral" class="glossary">bilateral</a> increases in strength from rotation resisted in one direction.
<h3>Assessment</h3>
Additional studies have investigated the use of the chop pattern as an <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a>. Zemkova et al. determined that a chop pattern on a weight-stack resisted cable column was <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> enough to consistently determine 1 - 20 repetition maximums, suggesting that the chop may be a <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> <a id="assessment" data-tip="1478" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">assessment</a> of core <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> strength and endurance. Further, the chop pattern was <a id="sensitivity" data-tip="1227" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/sensitivity" class="glossary">sensitive</a> enough to demonstrate differences in strength and endurance when comparing experienced exercisers/athletes (37, 38). This study likely implies that this exercise is <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> enough to be used as both a test/assessment, and may be used in a progressive resistance training program with planned acute variables. Palmer et al. demonstrated that the chop and lift demonstrated <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> results from <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a> to retest; and further, that chop and lift performance was moderately correlated with <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/plank-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">side-plank</a> endurance, but not the Biering-S&#xF8;rensen <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a> (lumbar extensor endurance) (39). These studies imply that the chop pattern is <a id="sensitivity" data-tip="1227" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/sensitivity" class="glossary">sensitive</a> enough to demonstrate differences in core performance between fit individuals, <a id="reliability" data-tip="1795" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliable</a> enough to consistently determine 1 - 20 repetition maximums, has demonstrated good test/re-test <a id="reliability" data-tip="1515" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/reliability" class="glossary">reliability</a>, and is moderately correlated with <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/plank-progression" target="_blank" rel="noopener">side-plank</a> endurance but not lumbar extensor endurance (Biering-S&#xF8;rensen <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>).

A few studies have investigated outcomes following training that incorporated the chop pattern. As mentioned above, Kim et al. demonstrated that adding sudden, external, <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> rotational perturbations against outstretched arms to a conventional 8-week strength training program resulted in larger increases in rotational strength and reactivity (36). Ab Razak et al. compared throwing velocity following 6-weeks, 3 days/week of basic strength training, basic strength training and handgrip strength training, and basic strength training and trunk rotation strength training. Both the handgrip strength and trunk rotation strength groups demonstrated increases in throwing performance when compared to basic strength training alone, suggesting that the addition of trunk rotation, and/or handgrip strength training may result in additional benefits. Note, the trunk rotation training included kneeling cable lifts, kneeling cable chops, seated cable core rotations, standing cable chops, and standing cable rotations (40). Both of these studies suggest that chop patterns (trunk rotation) may be an effective exercise for improving trunk rotation strength when incorporated into a conventional strength training program.
Additional studies have investigated the effect of core exercise on <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a>. Ali et al. compared the effects of a balanced routine, with and without core exercises, performed by individuals 65 - 75 years of age, 2x&apos;s/week for 12 weeks, demonstrating the addition of core exercises resulted in <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvement in <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> based on the Tinniti scale (41). However, Imai et al. compared core exercises alone to stability/balance exercises alone, demonstrating that performing core exercises had no immediate effect, but stability/balance exercises resulted in immediate improvements on posterolateral and posteromedial direction scores on the Star Excursion <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">Test</a> (SEBT) (42). These studies likely imply that the addition of core exercise to a balanced routine may result in additional benefits; however, core training alone is unlikely to have a significant effect on <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a>.
A series of publications resulted in a study that investigated the effects of incorporating chops for the treatment of low back pain post-surgical intervention. Tarnanen et al. developed a study protocol for a <a id="randomized-control-trial" data-tip="1403" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/randomized-control-trial" class="glossary">randomized controlled </a><a id="randomized-control-trial" data-tip="1407" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/randomized-control-trial" class="glossary">trial</a> (RCT) that would compare progressive, supervised rehabilitation including the chop pattern, to a conventional outpatient rehabilitation program that included post-operative education and a single session with a therapist to describe a home exercise program (43). Tarnanen et al. discussed the development of the exercise intervention in a follow-up publication (44). A study was published 5 years later comparing the two intervention plans, 3-months post spinal fusion surgery for spondylolisthesis. The two programs resulted in similar results for kinesiophobia and physical activity based on steps-per-day (45). The authors note that the similar results may be due in part to the 3-month delay between surgery and the beginning of rehabilitation, in which time most of the improvements for kinesiophobia and steps-per-day were already made. This may imply the study should be repeated using outcome measures that are representative of higher levels of function, or with a patient population that can benefit from immediate post-injury/surgical care.
Considering these studies alone, a conservative conclusion may be to imply that chop patterns are most effective when incorporated into a conventional routine for additional <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a>, strength, and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and may not result in additional benefits for the rehabilitation of lower back dysfunction.

<h3>Quick Summary:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Support: Half-kneeling, to standing, to single leg</li>
 <li>Unstable Environment: Floor to <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> pads, to <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> disks or <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> boards</li>
 <li>Additional Progressions: Band/cable to bar</li>
</ul>
<h3>Chop progressions:</h3>
<ol>
 <li>Half kneeling chop pattern</li>
 <li>Half kneeling chop pattern on an <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> surface</li>
 <li>Staggered-stance standing chop pattern</li>
 <li>Staggered-stance standing chop pattern <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> on an <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> surface</li>
 <li>Single-leg standing chop pattern</li>
 <li>Single-leg standing chop pattern on an <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> surface
 <ul>
 <li>Additional Progression</li>
 <li>Progression from bands or cables to bar anchored on one side.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ol>
<h3>Chop power progressions</h3>
<ol>
 <li>Medicine ball chop (medicine ball smash)</li>
 <li>Crunch and Catch</li>
</ol>
<hr>
<h3>Optimal Form:</h3>
<a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">Optimal</a> <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">form</a> for any exercise should be modeled with the intent of reducing signs that have been correlated with an increased risk of future pain and/or injury (e.g. absence of forward head, knees bow in, etc.). Generally, this results in cues that focus on the alignment of joints.
<ul>
 <li>Cervical and thoracic spine neutral</li>
 <li>Scapula protracted and depressed</li>
 <li>Neutral lumbar spine with abdominal <a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1580" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">drawing-in</a> maneuver (<a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1588" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">ADIM</a>)</li>
 <li>Neutral pelvis (no <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt)
 <ul>
 <li>Cueing a <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> pelvic tilt may be appropriate</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Hips, knees, and ankles in alignment</li>
 <li>Ankles dorsiflexed</li>
</ul>
<h4>Additional notes on Form:</h4>
The axe chop is a complicated exercise that is likely more appropriate for the experienced exerciser. Most <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a> of the chop pattern are performed with intent of maintaining a static lumbopelvic hip complex while resisting the rotational force created by the resistance. The instructor should carefully monitor the patient/client to ensure the transverse abdominis and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glute complex</a> remain engaged. <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1184" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">Progression</a> is appropriate when <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">form</a> can be maintained throughout the entirety of the set. In dynamic, standing variations it is important to cue pushing through the <a id="pivot-joint" data-tip="1836" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/pivot-joint" class="glossary">pivot</a> foot to reinforce triple extension mechanics. Do not allow the athlete to <a id="pivot-joint" data-tip="1836" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/pivot-joint" class="glossary">pivot</a> off the ball of the foot (metatarsal heads) onto the tips of the toes, rendering the <a id="pivot-joint" data-tip="1836" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/pivot-joint" class="glossary">pivot</a> leg powerless to produce force. Dynamic <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a> of a chop are great strengthening exercises that may prepare individuals for explosive variations of the chop <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1184" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">Progression</a>.
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1646160046-single-leg-chop-pattern.png" title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a single-leg chop progression" alt="Single-leg chop progression">

Videos

<ol>
 <li>Ng, J. K. F., Richardson, C. A., Parnianpour, M., &amp; Kippers, V. (2002). Fatigue-related changes in torque output and electromyographic parameters of trunk muscles during isometric axial rotation exertion: an investigation in patients with back pain and in healthy subjects. Spine, 27(6), 637-646</li>
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 <li>Larsen, L. H., Hirata, R. P., &amp; Graven-Nielsen, T. (2016). Effects of unilateral and bilateral experimental low-back pain on trunk muscle activity during stair walking in healthy and recurrent low-back pain patients. In 16th World Congress on Pain.</li>
 <li>O'Sullivan, P., Twomey, L., Allison, G., Sinclair, J., Miller, K., &amp; Knox, J. (1997). Altered patterns of abdominal muscle activation in patients with chronic low back pain. Australian journal of physiotherapy, 43(2), 91-98.</li>
 <li>O&rsquo;sullivan, P. B., Grahamslaw, K. M., Kendell, M., Lapenskie, S. C., M&ouml;ller, N. E., &amp; Richards, K. V. (2002). The effect of different standing and sitting postures on trunk muscle activity in a pain-free population. Spine, 27(11), 1238-1244.</li>
 <li>Fujitani, R., Jiromaru, T., Kida, N., &amp; Nomura, T. (2017). Effect of standing postural deviations on trunk and hip muscle activity. Journal of physical therapy science, 29(7), 1212-1215.</li>
 <li>Granata, K. P., Slota, G. P., &amp; Wilson, S. E. (2004). Influence of fatigue in neuromuscular control of spinal stability. Human factors, 46(1), 81-91.</li>
 <li>Lehman, G. J., Hoda, W., &amp; Oliver, S. (2005). Trunk muscle activity during bridging exercises on and off a swissball. Chiropractic &amp; osteopathy, 13(1), 14.</li>
 <li>Ng, J. K. F., Richardson, C. A., Parnianpour, M., &amp; Kippers, V. (2002). EMG activity of trunk muscles and torque output during isometric axial rotation exertion: a comparison between back pain patients and matched controls. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 20(1), 112-121.
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 <li>Gluteus medius and gluteus maximus</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Brookbush, B. (2018). Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD). BrookbushInstitute.com. https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd/</li>
 <li>Brookbush, B. (2017). Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED). BrookbushInstitute.com. BrookbushInstitute.com. https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/lower-leg-dysfunction/</li>
 <li>Feeney, D. F., Capobianco, R. A., Montgomery, J. R., Morreale, J., Grabowski, A. M., &amp; Enoka, R. M. (2018). Individuals with sacroiliac joint dysfunction display asymmetrical gait and a depressed synergy between muscles providing sacroiliac joint force closure when walking. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 43, 95-103.</li>
 <li>Franettovich, S. M., Honeywill, C. O. N. O. R., Wyndow, N., Crossley, K. M., &amp; Creaby, M. W. (2014). Neuromotor control of gluteal muscles in runners with achilles tendinopathy. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 46(3), 594-599.</li>
 <li>Noehren, B., Scholz, J., Davis, I. (2011) The effects of real-time gait retraining on hip kinematics, pain, and function in subjects with patellofemoral pain syndrome. Br Journal of Sports Medicine. 45:691-696</li>
 <li>Ireland, ML., Wilson, JD., Ballantyne, BT., Davis, IM. (2003). Hip Strength in Females With and Without Patellofemoral Pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2003. 33: 671-676</li>
 <li>Hungerford, B., Gilleard, W., Hodges, P. (2003) Evidence of altered lumbopelvic muscle recruitment in the presence of sacroiliac joint pain. Spine 28(14), 1593-1600</li>
 <li>Grimaldi, A., Richardson, C., Stanton, W., Durbridge, G., Donnelly, W., &amp; Hides, J. (2009). The association between degenerative hip joint pathology and size of the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus and piriformis muscles. Manual therapy, 14(6), 605-610.</li>
 <li>Cooper, N., Scavo, K., Strickland, K., Tipayamongkol, N., Nicholson, J., Bewyer, D., Sluka, K. Prevalence of gluteus medius weakness in people with chronic low back pain compared to healthy controls. J Euro Spine. 26 May 2015</li>
 <li>Padua, D. A., Bell, D. R., &amp; Clark, M. A. (2012). Neuromuscular characteristics of individuals displaying excessive medial knee displacement. Journal of athletic training, 47(5), 525.</li>
 <li>Mauntel, T., Begalle, R., Cram, T., Frank, B., Hirth, C., Blackburn, T., &amp; Padua, D. (2013). The effects of lower extremity muscle activation and passive range of motion on single leg squat performance. Journal Of Strength And Conditioning Research / National Strength &amp; Conditioning Association, 27(7), 1813-1823</li>
 <li>Smith, J. A., Popovich, J. M., &amp; Kulig, K. (2014). The influence of hip strength on lower limb, pelvis, and trunk kinematics and coordination patterns during walking and hopping in healthy women. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy, (Early Access), 1-23.</li>
 <li>Tateuchi, H., Taniguchi, M., Mori, N., Ichihashi, N. Balance of hip and trunk muscle activity is associated with increased anterior pelvic tilt during prone hip extension (2013) Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 22 (3). 391-397</li>
 <li>Teng, H. and Powers, C. (2016) Hip Extensor Strength, Trunk Posture, and Use of the Knee-Extensor Muscles During Running. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(8), 000-000.</li>
 <li>Bell, D. R., Padua, D. A., &amp; Clark, M. A. (2008). Muscle strength and flexibility characteristics of people displaying excessive medial knee displacement. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 89(7), 1323-1328.</li>
 <li>Snyder, K. R., Earl, J. E., O&rsquo;Connor, K. M., &amp; Ebersole, K. T. (2009). Resistance training is accompanied by increases in hip strength and changes in lower extremity biomechanics during running. Clinical Biomechanics, 24(1), 26-34</li>
 <li>Ramskov, D., Barton, C., Nielsen, R. O., &amp; Rasmussen, S. (2015). High Eccentric Hip Abduction Strength Reduces the Risk of Developing Patellofemoral Pain Among Novice Runners Initiating a Self-Structured Running Program: A 1-Year Observational Study. journal of orthopaedic &amp; sports physical therapy, 45(3), 153-161
 <ul>
 <li>Secondary Sources</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Voight, M. L., Hoogenboom, B. J., &amp; Cook, G. (2008). The chop and lift reconsidered: integrating neuromuscular principles into orthopedic and sports rehabilitation. North American Journal of Sports Physical Therapy: NAJSPT, 3(3), 151.</li>
 <li>Holman, P. How To Use The Chop And Lift Patterns To Enhance Core Performance.</li>
 <li>McGill, S. (2010). Core training: Evidence translating to better performance and injury prevention. Strength &amp; Conditioning Journal, 32(3), 33-46.</li>
 <li>Mendrin, N., Lynn, S. K., Griffith-Merritt, H. K., &amp; Noffal, G. J. (2016). Progressions of isometric core training. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 38(4), 50-65.</li>
 <li>Tarnanen, S. (2014). Rehabilitation after lumbar spine fusion: development of an exercise program. Studies in sport, physical education and health, (214).</li>
 <li>Cook, G (2003). Athletic body in balance: Optimal movement skills and conditioning for performance. Champaign: Human Kinetics.
 <ul>
 <li>Rotation</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Stodden, D. F., Campbell, B. M., &amp; Moyer, T. M. (2008). Comparison of trunk kinematics in trunk training exercises and throwing. The Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 22(1), 112-118.</li>
 <li>Pope MH, Andersson GB, Broman H, Svensson M, Zetterberg C. Electromyographic studies of the lumbar trunk musculature during the development of axial torques. J Orthop Res 4: 288&ndash;297, 1986.</li>
 <li>Tarnanen, S. P., Ylinen, J. J., Siekkinen, K. M., M&auml;lki&auml;, E. A., Kautiainen, H. J., &amp; H&auml;kkinen, A. H. (2008). Effect of isometric upper-extremity exercises on the activation of core stabilizing muscles. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 89(3), 513-521.</li>
 <li>Kim, Y., Kim, J., &amp; Yoon, B. (2015). Intensive unilateral core training improves trunk stability without preference for trunk left or right rotation. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, 28(1), 191-196.
 <ul>
 <li>Assessment</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>ZEMKOV&Aacute;, E. (2015). Assessment of core performance in athletes. Od v&yacute;skumu k praxi . Bratislava: STU.</li>
 <li>Zemkov&aacute;, E., Cepkov&aacute;, A., Uvacek, M., &amp; &Scaron;oo&scaron;, L. U. (2017). A novel method for assessing muscle power during the standing cable wood chop exercise. The Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 31(8), 2246-2254.</li>
 <li>Palmer, T. G., &amp; Uhl, T. L. (2011). Interday reliability of peak muscular power outputs on an isotonic dynamometer and assessment of active trunk control using the chop and lift tests. Journal of Athletic training, 46(2), 150-159.
 <ul>
 <li>Outcomes</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Ab Razak, R., Mea, K. K., Hussain, R. N. J. R., Kassim, N. A. M., &amp; Othman, N. (2018). The effect of hand grip strength and trunk rotation strength on throwing ball velocity. Malaysian Journal of Movement, Health &amp; Exercise, 7(1).
 <ul>
 <li>Balance</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Ali, F. M. H., Abd-Elaziz, A., &amp; Ismail, S. M. (2016). Efficacy of trunk rotation exercises on balance in elderly. International Journal of Therapies and Rehabilitation Research, 5(5), 16.</li>
 <li>Imai, A., Kaneoka, K., Okubo, Y., &amp; Shiraki, H. (2014). Comparison of the immediate effect of different types of trunk exercise on the star excursion balance test in male adolescent soccer players. International journal of sports physical therapy, 9(4), 428.
 <ul>
 <li>Low Back Pain</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Tarnanen, S., Neva, M. H., Dekker, J., H&auml;kkinen, K., Vihtonen, K., Pekkanen, L., &amp; H&auml;kkinen, A. (2012). Randomized controlled trial of postoperative exercise rehabilitation program after lumbar spine fusion: study protocol. BMC musculoskeletal disorders, 13(1), 123.</li>
 <li>Tarnanen, S. (2014). Rehabilitation after lumbar spine fusion: development of an exercise program. Studies in sport, physical education and health, (214).</li>
 <li>Ilves, O., H&auml;kkinen, A., Dekker, J., Wahlman, M., Tarnanen, S., Pekkanen, L., &hellip; &amp; Neva, M. (2017). Effectiveness of postoperative home-exercise compared with usual care on kinesiophobia and physical activity in spondylolisthesis: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 49.</li>
</ol>

Bibliography

Copyright

A-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks darker under a microscope.  This area of the cell is darker due to parallel arrangement of thicker filaments (myosin) and overlap with the thinner filaments (actin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the A-band is where actin and myosin interact.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Accuracy - the proportion of individuals correctly identified by the test results.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, a special test with perfect accuracy would imply a test has 100% specificity, 100% sensitivity, 100% positive predictive value and 100% negative predictive values.</li>
</ul>

Action Potential - A rapid change in voltage, resulting in a wave of excitation, that may result in stimulation of a nerve or muscle cell.
<ul>
 	<li>In order for an action potential to be initiated, the resting membrane voltage must exceed the excitation threshold, which then results in a cascade of depolarization and the "wave of excitation." Any stimulus below that threshold will not result in an action potential, and a stimulus greater than the threshold will not increase a single action potential, but may result in additional action potentials.  In this way, the action potential functions more like an on/off switch (all or none), and less like a dimmer switch.</li>
</ul>

A single-joint movement pattern (most often) designed to load a specific under-active muscle(s), while minimizing the contribution of over-active synergists via specific cues/joint motions.
<ul>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises are performed with the intent of addressing a muscle exhibiting a reduction in activity (tone) as a result of, or contributing to postural dysfunction.</li>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises cannot be multi-joint movement patterns due to relative flexibility, altered reciprocal inhibition, and synergistic dominance resulting in compensation patterns.</li>
</ul>
Example, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/activation/gluteus-medius-activation-progression/" target="_blank">gluteus medius activation</a> involves resisted hip abduction while minimizing the contribution of the TFL via hip extension.

Active stretching is a term used to describe a stretch that involves an active contraction of opposing musculature to lengthen a muscle to its end range. Generally these stretches are held for 2-5 seconds and repeated for 8-15 repetitions.

Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing (initiating and accelerating) the decomposition of ATP to ADP.
<ul>
 	<li>This dephosphorylation (breakdown) reaction releases energy for processes like muscular contraction.</li>
</ul>

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The molecule that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule, providing most of the energy associated with muscular contraction and human movement. ATP is composed of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three molecules of inorganic phosphates.
<ul>
 	<li>Energy is provided when hydrolysis results in the cleaving of a phophate group; resulting in adenosine diphosphate, an inorganigic phosphate group, and energy.</li>
</ul>

Algometry - measuring the amount of pressure to result in sensitivity or pain, using an algometer.
<ul>
 	<li>Generally, research uses algometry to establish a minimum pain pressure threshold (PPT), in which a lower PPT implies more sensitivity and pain, and a higher PPT implies less sensitivity and pain. PPT is a common outcome measure in trigger point research.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-140177" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg" alt="Image of an Algometer" width="500" height="333" /></a>

All-or-none principle - a nerve or muscle cell's response to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential (threshold of an action potential), the nerve or muscle fiber will respond completely; otherwise, there is no response.

Example, when a motor unit in the biceps brachii is stimulated it contracts the same way whether a 10 lb or 50 lb dumbbell is lifted.  It is actually the number of muscle cells and the size of the motor unit that determines force output.

&nbsp;

The transition period between eccentric load and concentric contraction during a repetition of an exercise.  This term is most often used in reference to power/plyometric exercises, in which a shorter amortization phase is believed to be beneficial.  The shorter amortization phase may better use the stored energy from the elastic deformation of connective tissue and enhance synchronization of myotatic (stretch) reflex with maximum voluntary contraction.

Example, the athlete was cued to spend as little time as possible in the bottom of their squat stance (the amortization phase) during a set of box jumps.

Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.

That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.

Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.

An anatomical direction; toward the front

Example, the face is on the anterior aspect of the head

Appendicular Skeleton - referring to the bones the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the bones that support them. This includes the pelvis, clavicle and scapula. There are approximately 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Appendicular, as in appendage, "that which is appended to something as a proper part," 1640s, from <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/append?ref=etymonline_crossreference">append</a> + <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/-age?ref=etymonline_crossreference">-age</a>. - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/appendage" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Appendicular skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/axial-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">axial skeleton</a>".

A reflexive decrease in muscle activity due to joint dyskinesis.
For example, a reduction in deep cervical flexor activity as a result of cervical spine dyskinesis.

Arthrokinematic Motion - Small amplitude motions between bone surfaces at a joint.  The arthrokinematic motions are roll, glide (slide or translation), spin, compression and distraction (traction). Arthrokinematic motions accompany osteokinematic motions to maintain joint congruence.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, arthrokinematic motion of the talus includes posterior glide on the tibia during ankle dorsiflexion.</li>
</ul>
Synonyms include: arthrokinematics, passive accessory motion, joint play and component motion

&nbsp;

Assessment - is the act of assessing, i.e. determining the importance, size, or value of -

In most cases, the results of an assessment are compared to normative data. If the individual exhibits values that are within normal parameters, it may be assumed that the aspect of health or motion assessed is not contributing to the patient's complaint, symptoms or movement impairment. If the results fall outside of normal parameters, it may indicate that the aspect of health or motion assessed is contributing to, or being affected by the patient/client's complaint, symptoms, or movement impairment. In some cases, the results of an assessment are compared to an "ideal model." In this case, deviations from the ideal are noted as potential issues. For example, deviations noted in the <a title="Introduction to the Overhead Squat Assessment" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/online-courses/articles/assessment/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment/" target="_blank">Overhead Squat Assessment</a> are compared to an "ideal model" of posture and motion.

Assessments used by human movement professionals can be divided into three broad categories:
<ul>
 	<li>"Clear" the Patient/Client for Intervention - These are tests, assessments and evaluations used to determine if a patient/client's issue may improve given the assessing professional's scope, skills, abilities and willingness to treat that individual.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, many of the special tests used in orthopedic medicine assist in determining the level of pathology or likelihood of a particular diagnosis. Certain issues and diagnoses are beyond the scope of the human movement professional, and are better treated by diagnostic professionals in the medical community (physicians, podiatrists, surgeons, etc.). A Calf Squeeze (Thompson) Test is one example, in which a positive sign may indicate a rupture of the Achilles tendon that may be better treated via surgical intervention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Highlight Contraindications - Tests, assessments and evaluations used to stratify risk or preclude a professional from addressing certain tissues, motions or using a particular technique.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, the Vertebral Artery Test (VBI) is often used to determine if high velocity thrust mobilizations (manipulations) are safe for a patient with cervical dysfunction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection: Tests, assessments and evaluations used to assist the professional in determining which techniques, modalities and exercises will best address a patient/client's complaints or desired goals.
<ul>
 	<li>Most movement assessments fall into this category. For example, a positive <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/elys-test-rectus-femoris-flexibility-assessment/" target="_blank">Ely's Test</a> may indicate a need to release and/or lengthen the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/" target="_blank">rectus femoris</a>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Note: An assessment, or assessment result, may fall into more than one category. For example, although goniometry is an assessment most often used to Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection, if a range of motion is significantly altered, with an abnormal end-feel, and/or causes the patient or client/pain, the individual may need to be referred to a physician for further testing and Clearance to resume rehab activities.  Further, that same patient may return to the human movement professional with a list of Contraindicated Activities from the physician. - "When in doubt, refer out!"

Axial Skeleton - referring to the bones of the head, neck, trunk and spinal column (does not include pelvis). There are approximately 80 bones in the axial skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Axial, as in "axis", referring to "imaginary motionless straight line around which a body (such as the Earth) rotates," from Latin axis "axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky" - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/axis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Axial skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/appendicular-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">appendicular skeleton</a>".

Balance - The ability to maintain a body’s center of mass over its base of support. Balance can be static or dynamic.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, maintaining balance is harder on one leg because the center of mass must stay over a much smaller base of support.</li>
</ul>

A ball and socket joint (also called a spheroid joint or spheroidal joint) is a synovial joint in which the rounded or spherical end of one bone fits into a cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. Examples include the hip and shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

Base of support (BoS) - refers to the area beneath an object or person, and the area within the perimeter created by every point of contact that the object or person makes with the supporting surface. This may include the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glutes</a> of someone sitting on a chair, or the back of someone leaning against a wall.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, during a single leg balance the BoS is the area of the foot in contact with the surface; however, when a person is standing on two feet, the BoS is the area of both feet and the surface between them.</li>
</ul>

Pertaining to both sides

Example, bilateral rows are performed with both arms at the same time.

Case-control Study - a particular form of retrospective study that samples a matched group of people who have, and do not have the outcome being studied. A case-control study is a quasi-experimental design, often used in medicine to aid in determining potential contributing factors (cannot determine causality). In this study type exposure is the dependent variable and outcome is independent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in this retrospective case-control, medical records were investigated for trends correlated with cervical pain (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Mäkela, M., Heliövaara, M., Sievers, K., Impivaara, O., Knekt, P., &amp; Aromaa, A. (1991). Prevalence, determinants, and consequences of chronic neck pain in Finland. American journal of epidemiology, 134(11), 1356-1367.</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the tail, relative to humans this term is often used to refer to "in the direction of the tale (toward the feet)".

Example, to release the trapezius muscle the therapist used a force directed caudally.

Center of mass (CoM) - an object's mean position of mass; that is, a point that is perfectly surrounded by an equal amount mass in all directions.

Center of gravity (CoG) - point where gravity appears to act. Since the human body is so small compared to the earth, we can assume gravity acts uniformly on the body, and that CoG and CoM are the same.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the CoM of the human body while lying down or standing straight up is close to our navel. However, it is possible that during a resistance exercise, the combination of the body's weight and the weight of the resistance will place the combined CoM outside the body. For example, during the mid-portion of a <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/back-squat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">back squat</a> the CoM would be several anterior to the naval.</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the head (synonym: cranial)

Example, hip pain was felt with any force directed cephalad.

Cohort Study - a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic), performing a cross-section at intervals through-out a period of time. A cohort study is a quasi-experimental design often used in medicine to aid in determining etiology or a cause-and-effect relationship. In this study type exposure is the independent variable and outcome is dependent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Cholewicki et al. (1) investigated Yale Varsity Athletes (the cohort) with 2 and 3 year follow up (longitudinal design) and found that trunk muscle response time to off-loading was predictive of future low back injury.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/core/increased-trunk-muscle-latency-may-cause-rather-than-result-from-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</a></li>
</ol>

Comparable Sign: A combination of pain, stiffness and/or spasm during examination that is comparable to the patients symptoms.
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

An alternative movement pattern that has been adopted to compensate for dysfunction/impairment in the human movement system.
Example: A lack of calf extensibility may limit dorsiflexion, leading to the knees bowing inward (functional valgus) and excessive forward lean of the torso during a squat.

An arthrokinematic motion - the approximation of joint surfaces; that is, a force that directs one bone surface into another resulting in a reduction in intra-articular volume. Although widely thought of as a "destructive force", it is likely best to consider compression as a naturally occurring, stabilizing force. Any arthrokinematic force in excess (spin, glide, roll, traction) may be viewed as potentially deleterious.

For example, during a squat the femoral head is compressed into the acetabulum by muscular forces, bodyweight and any additional external load.

Concave (Concavity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the interior surface of a bowl or sphere - to cave-in or curve inward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the internal surfaces of the pelvis is concave, holding some of the bodies viscera.</li>
</ul>

Concordant Sign - The patient's specific pain, symptom or complaint. 
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

Conductivity: Stimulation results in more than a local effect (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, in a muscle cell the stimulation of a motor endplate results in a change in cell membrane polarity that rapidly propagates (is conducted) along the entire length of the muscle cell, stimulating all sacromere.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

A condyloid joint (also called condylar, bicondylar, ellipsoid, or ellipsoidal) is an ovoid articular surface, or condyle, that is received into an elliptical cavity.  These joints permit movement in two planes.  Examples include the knee, metacarpophalangeal joints and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Connective Tissue Cell - One of the four basic types of animal tissue, consisting mostly fibers and ground substance.  These cells are specialized to binds organs together, holds them in place, protect them from external forces, and may fill space in the body's cavities.

Example, the body's muscles are enclosed in durable connective tissue sheets known as the "epimysium", "perimysium", and "endomysium," which and in support and transmitting force.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Contractility: The ability to shorten (1).
<ul>
 	<li>Contractility: Muscle cells are unique in the amount they can shorten when stimulated; this is this largerly due to the highly organized and unique arrangement of myofilaments (actin and myosin).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Pertaining to the opposite side

Example, the external oblique muscle performs contralateral rotation; rotation to the opposite side.

Convex (Convexity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere - to bulge or curve outward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the top of your head is shaped by the convex exterior surface of your skull.</li>
</ul>

Correlational Research - Non-experimental <a href="https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/">research</a> method in which the statistical relationship between two variables is investigated.
<ul>
 	<li>In this research by Kwon et al., a correlation was noted between a decrease in extensibility during a hamstring length test (goniometry) and current knee pain (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/correlation-patellofemoral-pain-syndrome-pfps-hamstring-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kwon O, Yun M, and Lee W. (2014). Correlation between intrinsic patellofemoral pain syndrome in young adults and lower extremity biomechanics. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26: 961-964</a></li>
</ol>

Counter-nutation - posterior rotation of sacrum relative to ilium, and/or anterior rotation of ilium relative to sacrum.
<ul>
 	<li>The pelvic floor muscles are examples of muscle that may counter-nutate the sacrum.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_126335" align="aligncenter" width="400"]<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png"><img class=" wp-image-126335" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png" alt="Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint" width="400" height="967" /></a> Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint[/caption]

&nbsp;

Crossover (Study) Design - A type of longitudinal, repeated measures quasi-experimental design in which each group receives both treatments, but at different times. It is named "crossover" due to the patients "crossing-over" to the other treatment or sham group after a specified period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>This type of study has the advantage of every individual serving as their own control, which may reduce the influence of confounding variables.</li>
 	<li>Unfortunately, the design itself introduces the chances that anyone receiving the experimental variable in the first period will continue to be effected in the second period.</li>
</ul>
In a study by Senna et al., a cross-over design was used to investigate the difference load made on inter-set rest intervals (1).
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/strength-training-research-corner/heavy-vs-light-load-single-joint-exercise-performance-with-different-rest-periods/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Senna, G.W., Rodrigues, B.M., Sandy, Scudese, Bianco, A, &amp; Dantas, E.H.M. (2017). Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different intervals. Journal of Human Kinetics, 58, 197-206. </a></li>
</ol>

Cross-sectional Study - a research design that involves gathering data from a population or representative subset at a specific point in time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Karimi-Mobarake et al.(1) investigated the prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum among school children 7-11 years old in Iran.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/low-prevalence-of-genu-varum-and-valgum-among-elementary-school-children/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karimi-Mobarake, M., Kashefipour, A., Yousfnejad, Z. The prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum in primary school children in Iran 2003-2004. (2005) Journal of Medical Science 5(1). 52-54</a></li>
</ol>

Cytokine - A broad and loose category of small proteins that act through receptors, and are especially important to immune function (inflammation).
<ul>
 	<li>Cytokines include substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Their definite distinction from hormones is a topic of continued research.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Dependent variable - in research, this is the variable that is changed by the independent variable, most often this is the "outcome" of the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Cleland et al. (1), the independent variable is "thoracic manipulation," and the dependent variable is "lower trapezius muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/short-term-effects-lower-thoracic-manipulation-lower-trapezius-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cleland J, Selleck B, Stowell T, Brown L, Alberini S, St. Cyr H, Caron T. Short-term Effects of Thoracic Manipulation on Lower Trapezius Muscle Strength.  Journal of Manual &amp; Manipulative Therapy. 2004; 12(2): 82-90</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the trunk or center of the body

Example, the foot is at the distal end of the leg.

An arthrokinematic motion - a force applied to a body part that may result in the separation of joint surfaces, a reduction in intra-articular pressure, and/or an increase in intra-articlar space.

For example, to hang from one's hands (i.g. in preparation for a pull-up) results in a traction force on the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

An anatomical term of location; back or upper surface

Example, shoe laces may compress tissues on the dorsal surface of the foot

The "drawing-in" maneuver is a common cue used during exercise and rehabilitation programs. A light contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abominis</a> (and potentially the entire <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>) achieved by gently pulling the lower abdominal region away from one's waist band. This should have minimal effect on breathing, and should not be confused with a maximal contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abdominis</a> resulting in a "vacuum pose".
<ul>
 	<li>Research often refers to this maneuver as the "abdominal drawing-in maneuver"; abbreviated ADIM.</li>
</ul>
Development and introduction of this cue into practice is based on the pivotal research and resulting text:
<ol>
 	<li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization – A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
</ol>

Faulty or abnormal movement; an alteration of normal kinematics.

For example, joint stiffness or a reduction in arthrokinematics motion that results in limited osteokinematic range of motion - inadequate inferior glide of the femoral head resulting in limited abduction of the hip.

The seeping into, or abnormal collection of fluid in a body cavity.

For example, knee effusion describes swelling within the knee joint.

Note: the word "effusion" is used differently in medicine than it is used in reference to the movement (seeping out) of liquids and gases, for example in chemistry.

&nbsp;

A trait of body tissues that allows a tissue to return to its resting length or state after deformation or stretch.
Example:  Muscle is elastic tissue; many muscles will return to their resting length after being stretched to 150% of that length without any appreciable change in tissue quality.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a cell to return to its resting length after being stretched/lengthened.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: this term is often confused with extensibility. Elasticity is not the ability to stretch; it is the ability to return to normal length after being stretched. Muscle tissue, connective tissue and even nerve tissue have varying levels of elasticity.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Epithelial cell - One of the four basic cell types, found lining the body's cavities, blood vessels, organs and constitutes most gland tissue.  These cells are specialized to aid with absorption, secretion, or act as a barrier from foreign objects.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. S., &amp; Miller, L. (1998). Anatomy &amp; physiology. New York (NY): WCB/McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Equilibrium - a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, to maintain a neutral trunk while pushing or pulling a weight in one hand, your core musculature must balance the force by creating an equal amount of force in the opposite direction.</li>
</ul>

The study of causation, or origination. The word is commonly used in the medical professions, where it may refer to the study of why things occur, or the reason behind why things act a certain way.

For example, the etiology of low back pain is a complex subject, with multiple contributing factors and various structures implicated.

<div class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Evidence-based medicine (practice) is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient(client) values (2)."</div>
<ul>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">...the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (clients).  It involves the integration of at least (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve (1).</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. M., Haynes, R. B., &amp; Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.</li>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett D et al. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd edition. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p.1</li>
</ol>

Excitability: The ability of a cell to change in membrane conductance as a response to stimulation.

<ul>
 	<li>For example, muscle cells are specialized to react to a change in membrane potential with contraction, where as nerve cells are specialized to propagate a change in membrane potential along there axons and communicate that message to other tissues via neurotransmitters.
</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Excitation threshold: The level that a depolarization must reach for an action potential to occur.
<ul>
 	<li>The excitation threshold is a contributing factor to the "all-or-none" response of muscle and nerves cells to a stimulus.</li>
</ul>

Exercise Progression - Modification of an exercise with the intent of promoting adaptation by increasing demand. This can be accomplished by increasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise progression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise, or series of exercises that make it harder to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Progression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Exercise regression - The opposite of progression; that is, modification of an exercise with the intent of reducing demand. This can be accomplished by decreasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability. Generally, regressions are used to modify an exercise to the client's current level of ability, with the intent of improving form, motor learning and retention.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise regression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise or series of exercises that make it easier to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Regression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Experimental Research - Studies in which the researchers introduce the variable to be studied, with the intent of observing the outcome. This is different than observational research which observes the effect of a variable already present. Many texts also assert that experimental research should include randomization and ideally a control group, as is seen in Randomized Control Trials. Studies in which the variable is introduced by the researchers, but participants are not randomized may be considered Quasi-experimental research.
<ul>
 	<li>In this study by Esformes, the experimental variable was squat depth and the outcome measures observed were various performance measures related to power (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/back-squat-depth-lower-body-post-activation-potentiation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Esformes, J., &amp; Bampouras, T. (2013). Effect of back squat depth on lower-body postactivation potentiation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 2997-3000.</a></li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Extensibility: The ability of a cell to be stretched or lengthened without damage (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, most cells would rupture with even a modest stretch, but muscles can stretch up to 3 times their contracted length.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

False Negative - the proportion of negatives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as negative when the patient was actually positive)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

False Positive - the proportion of positives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as positive when the patient was actually negative)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

The function of fascia is to transmit force, provide support, and protect tissues. Fascia can effect motion by:
Transmitting force from one or more muscles (example: the thoracolumbar fascia)
Restricting motion in cases of adaptive shortening and/or adhesion to proximal structures (example: iliotibial band in cases of lower-leg dysfunction)
Elastic recoil after stretching can contribute to force production (example: plyometric exercise)

Note: There is evidence that fascia may house more receptors related to human movement than other tissues. In this way fascia may act as a motherboard for the nervous system

The fascial system does not contract or develop trigger points, and its capacity to adapt to stretching and or strengthening exercise is limited, especially when compared to the adaptive capacity of muscle tissue.

Fibromyalgia - A loosely defined diagnosis that is associated with a combination of widespread pain in combination with 2) tenderness at 11 or more of the 18 specific tender point sites. Consideration may also be given to the presence of psychosocial stressors and inflammatory disease in the patients history. Newer research suggests that fibromyalgia may be at least in part due to central sensitization of myofascial pain, often associated with trigger points (1 - 4).
<ol>
 	<li>Wolfe, F. (2018). Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome Criteria: Problems in Definition and Validity. Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Widespread Pain: From Construction to Relevant Recognition.</li>
 	<li>Wolfe, F., Smythe, H. A., Yunus, M. B., Bennett, R. M., Bombardier, C., Goldenberg, D. L., ... &amp; Fam, A. G. (1990). The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology, 33(2), 160-172.</li>
 	<li>Alonso-Blanco, C., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Morales-Cabezas, M., Zarco-Moreno, P., Ge, H. Y., &amp; Florez-García, M. (2011). Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. The Clinical journal of pain, 27(5), 405-413.</li>
 	<li>Staud, R., Nagel, S., Robinson, M. E., &amp; Price, D. D. (2009). Enhanced central pain processing of fibromyalgia patients is maintained by muscle afferent input: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. PAIN®, 145(1-2), 96-104.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.
Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.

An increase in joint stability via compressive forces resulting from muscular contraction and increased tension in fascial structures (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to core intrinsic stabilizers, the thoracolumbar fascia and the sacroiliac joint; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Form closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

The relative contribution of joint shape and structure to the stability of a joint (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to the "rough" articulating surfaces of the sacroiliac joint and the wedge shape of the sacrum; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Force closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

An arthrokinematic motion - linear motion across a joint surface parallel to the plane of the adjacent joint surface, just as your posterior moves relative to a "slide" in a park.

For example, the glide of facet joint in the spine during spinal flexion and extension, or the posterior glide of the humeral head that must accompany anterior roll to maintain congruence with glenoid fossa during shoulder horizontal adduction.

A plane joint (also called an arthrodial joint, gliding joint or plane articulation) is a synovial joint which allows only gliding movement in the plane of the articular surfaces. The opposed surfaces of the bones are flat or almost flat, with movement generally limited by tight capsules and ligaments. Plane joints are numerous, are most often small, and allow very little motion.  Examples include the carpal joints of the wrist, the tarsal joints of the ankle, and the facet joints of the spine.

"...refers to the measurement of angles, in particular the measurement of angles created at human joints by the bones of the body (1).

&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White. Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry 3rd Edition. Copyright (C) 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
</ol>

Ground reaction force (GRF) - The force exerted by the ground on the body in contact with it.

For example, when a runner's foot strikes the ground with a force equal to the mass of the individual times their acceleration due to gravity, momentum and muscular exertion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on the runner's foot.
<ul>
 	<li>GRF is often measured in research studies using force plates as a means of quantitatively measuring the force generated by an individual.</li>
</ul>

H-Band - Refers to the central zone of a sarcomere that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the sarcomere is a lighter portion of the A-band where there is no overlap between the thinner filaments (actin), and the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>Example, when a muscle contracts, actin and myosin cross-bridging occurs in the region of the A-band until the H-band is reached where no overlap occurs.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

A hinge joint (also called a ginglymus) is a synovial joint in which the articular surfaces fit one another in a way that only permits motion in one plane. Examples include the elbow, the knee (unless considered a condyloid joint) and the interphalangeal joints.

Holism (holistic) (biological holism) - (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that systems and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts.
<ul>
 	<li>Summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics": "The whole is more than the sum of its parts". However, the term "holism" was introduced into language by the South African statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. (Smuts J. C. 1987 [1926]. Holism and evolution. Cape Town: N &amp; S Press.)</li>
</ul>
Example: The Brookbush Institute promotes a holistic approach to human movement science, in which the muscular, fascial, articular and neural systems are not viewed as separable and all proximal segments are considered.

Hormone: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, transported via tissue fluids such as blood, to stimulate cells to "act."
<ul>
 	<li>Example: Growth hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain; stimulating growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in certain types of cells</li>
</ul>
The English physician E. H. Starling discovered in collaboration with the physiologist W. M. Bayliss secretin, the first hormone, in 1902. (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Henriksen, J. H., &amp; de Muckadell, O. S. (2000). Secretin, its discovery, and the introduction of the hormone concept. Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation, 60(6), 463-472.</li>
</ol>

A range of motion achieved by the patient/client that is more than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If an individual can place their forehead on their knees they are likely hypermobile at one, if not several joints

Example 2: 110° of shoulder external rotation would be considered hyper-mobile.

Hyperplasia is an increase in organic tissue size due to an adaptive increase in the number of cells per organ.
<ul>
 	<li>Although muscle hyperplasia has been noted in some animals, human muscle tissue does not seem to have this adaptive ability.</li>
</ul>

A condition of excessive tone of the skeletal muscles; increased resistance of muscle to passive stretching.  May be related to increased neural drive, synergistic dominance, trigger points, reflexive over-activity, and/or muscle length.
Example:  Individuals who exhibit ankle eversion and abduction during an overhead squat assessment likely have hypertonic fibularis (peroneal) muscles.

Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle mass/size due to increase in the volume and cross-sectional area (CSA) of individual muscle cells. The increase in cross-sectional area can be attributed to an an increase in contractile proteins and structural elements (myofibrillar hypertophy), as well as an increase in glycogen storage and elements related to metabolism (sarcoplasmic hypertophy). Hypertrophy is an adaptation of both cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers in response to progressive increases in workload.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Hypertrophy is not hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle size due to an adaptive increase in the number of muscle fibers/cells per muscle. This type of adaptation does not occur in human muscle tissue.</li>
</ul>

A range of motion achieved by a patient/client that is less than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If the end range of shoulder external rotation is reached and measured as 75° during goniometric assessment, the client/patient is exhibiting hypomobility of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a phenomenon; "scientific hypotheses" are generally constructed in a way that is testable or falsifiable.
<ul>
 	<li>Example: The hypothesis, "excessive knee valgus may be correlated with future knee pain and injury," has been the subject of several studies published over the last decade.</li>
</ul>

Diminished tone of skeletal muscles; diminished resistance of muscles to passive stretching.   May be related to inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, arthrokinematics inhibition and/or  increased resting length of muscle.
Example:  If your knees cave (hip adduction) during a squat or leg-press it is likely that your gluteus medius is hypotonic.

I-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the cell is lighter due to parallel arrangement of thinner filaments (actin), and no overlap with the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the I-bands will decrease in width and move closer to one another.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Independent variable - in research, this is the variable or phenomenon being manipulated in the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Ghanbari et al. (1), the independent variable is "knee joint mobilization", the dependent variable is "quadriceps muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/effect-knee-joint-mobilization-quadriceps-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ghanbari A. and Kamalgharibi S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences. 2(4): 186-191</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; toward the bottom (below)

Example, the mouth is inferior to the eyes

A reduction in neural drive, muscular activity, and or force output due to altered neuromuscular reflex.  Alterations in neuromuscular reflex may occur due to increases in muscle length (hypothesis: increased excitation threshold), altered reciprocal inhibition in response to increased antagonist tone, and or alterations in joint motion (arthrokinematics inhibition).

Making a whole of parts.

Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.

Intermuscular Coordination - Optimal timing and motor unit recruitment of agonists, antagonists, synergists, neutralizers, stabilizers and fixators.

Example: Role of Muscles during Hip Extension
<ul>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Prime Mover" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/prime-mover/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Prime Mover&lt;/div&gt;The muscle most responsible for a joint action under load -&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, the muscle that can produce the most force for a given joint action. Often this term is used synonymously with the term agonist. The prime mover as defined above, may or may not be the most active muscle for a joint action during activities of daily living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: the gluteus maximus is the most powerful hip extensor and therefore the prime mover; however, the hamstrings are likely the most active hip extensors during low level activities like walking or standing.">Prime Mover</a>:  <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/external/82855344.hd.mp4?s=54c3e7d98fb9d4e0af8d282c85ba9b3e">Gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Synergists" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/synergists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Synergists&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that assist the prime mover in performing a joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all muscles that can perform a joint action that are not the prime mover, are termed synergists.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The rectus abdominis is the prime mover of spinal flexion. All other muscles that can perform spinal flexion are synergists including – external obliques, internal obliques and psoas.">Synergists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/biceps-femoris/">Biceps femoris (long head)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/semitendinosus-and-semimembranosus/">semitendinosus, semimembranosus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">posterior head of adductor magnus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Antagonist" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/antagonists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Antagonist&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.">Antagonists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/psoas/">Psoas</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/iliacus/">iliacus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl/">tensor fascia latae</a> (TFL),<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/"> rectus femoris</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">anterior adductors (especially pectineus)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/sartorius/">sartorius</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Neutralizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/neutralizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Neutralizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose unwanted joint motions created by the prime mover and/or synergists, and/or muscles that prevent unwanted ancillary motion.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The teres minor and infraspinatus neutralize the internal rotation force created by the pectoralis major during horizontal adduction of the shoulder.">Neutralizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-minimus/">Gluteus minimus</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-medius/">anterior fibers of gluteus medius</a> neutralize external rotation force of <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/">gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Stabilizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/stabilizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Stabilizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles whose primary role is to improve arthrokinematics by maintaining optimal alignment of joint surfaces.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most often these muscles are the most intrinsic muscles of a joint, have a larger percentage of Type I muscle fibers and are rich in proprioceptors.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the rotator cuff act as stabilizers for most shoulder motions.">Stabilizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/deep-rotators-of-the-hip/">Deep rotators of hip</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Fixator" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/fixators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Fixator&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.">Fixators</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/">Intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-abdominis/">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/internal-obliques/">internal</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/external-obliques/">external obliques</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/quadratus-lumborum/">quadratus lumborum</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/erector-spinae/">erector spinae</a></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Example from: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/introduction-to-functional-anatomy/kinesiology-of-the-hip/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to Functional Anatomy: Kinesiology of the Hip</a>

Intramuscular coordination refers to the coordinated recruitment of motor units within a single muscle. This concept is used to explain increases in maximal strength and power; however, the coordinated and sequential recruitment of motor units is also essential to strength endurance and smooth coordinated motion.  Related terminology may include; motor unit recruitment, preferential recruitment, rate coding, sequence, etc..

Example: It is hypothesized that the "shaking" noted during a novice exercisers attempt at an activity like the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/ball-crunch-and-progressions/" target="_blank">stability ball crunch</a> may be due to relatively poor intramuscular coordination. Rather than smooth, sequential firing of rectus abdominis motor units, groups of motor units turn on and off in an uncoordinated manner.

Pertaining to the same side

Example, the quadratus lumborum performs ipsilateral flexion; lateral flexion toward the same side as the muscle.

An isoform, or variant, is a member of a set of similar proteins, that originate from the same gene, or gene family.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the variations in myosin heavy chain proteins (MHC I, MHC IIA, MHC IIB/X) that contribute to the characteristic differences between muscle fiber types.</li>
</ul>

“The Prime Assumption”
Everything crossing a joint will influence joint motion during every joint action.

A concept that has expanded over the past several decades to describe the integration of 4 body systems (muscle, joints, fascia and nerves), as well as, the coordinated function of various body segments (e.g. hip, knee and ankle) to produce motion. Kinetic referring to motion, and chain being an analogy for the interdependent link between systems.

Example, the posterior kinetic chain, refers to the integrated function of nerves, muscles, fascia and joints on the posterior side of the body.

The concept of the kinetic chain was originally adapted from the work of a mechanical engineer named Franz Reuleaux (Kinematics of Machinery (1875)) by Dr. Arthur Steindler in 1955 (Steindler A: Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas Co.. 1955).

Latent Trigger Point - A myofascial trigger point that is not painful at rest, only painful when palpated, and may or may not exhibit a characteristic referral pain pattern when palpated.  Latent trigger points do result in an acute point of sensitivity, in a taut band of muscle, and may restrict range of motion (1).

Note: Based on the clinical experience, the Brookbush Institute suggests that latent trigger points (sometimes refereed to as Tender Points) are more common than active trigger points. Further, they are likely addressed more often than trigger points; being the intended target of many soft-tissue mobility techniques.
<ol>
 	<li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,© 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the midline

Example, the anterior deltoid is lateral to the pectoralis major

Length/Tension Relationship - The amount of force generated by a muscle is dependent on sarcomere length.
<ul>
 	<li>The ability of sarcomere to maximally produce force occurs when sarcomere length results in optimal overlap between actin and myosin. Stretching a sarcomere decreases overlap between actin and myosin filaments and reduces force production (1-3). When length is less than optimal, actin from opposite ends overlap and interfere with cross-bridging, and myosin filament are compressed as they contact the the Z-disk also reducing force (4)</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Gordon, A. M., Huxley, A. F., &amp; Julian, F. J. (1966). The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. The Journal of physiology, 184(1), 170-192.</li>
 	<li>Edman, K. A. P. (1966). The relation between sarcomere length and active tension in isolated semitendinosus fibres of the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 183(2), 407-417.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L., Loren, G. J., &amp; Friden, J. (1994). In vivo measurement of human wrist extensor muscle sarcomere length changes. Journal of neurophysiology, 71(3), 874-881.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L. (2002). Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Levels of Evidence - Relative to evidence-based practice, levels of evidence are an attempt to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.  Note: levels of evidence do not supersede the critical evaluation of an experienced professional, and should be viewed as guidelines - a meta-analysis may be poorly constructed (Level IA), and a comparative study (Level III) may employ new technologies and a strong methodology.


The Levels of Evidence used by the Brookbush Institute, as described by Shekelle et al.(1):
<ul>
 	<li class="p1">IA - Evidence from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials</li>
 	<li class="p1">IB - Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIA - Evidence from at least one controlled study without randomization</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIB - Evidence from at least one other type of quasi-experimental study</li>
 	<li class="p1">III - Evidence from non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case-control studies</li>
 	<li class="p1">IV - Evidence from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, or both</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., &amp; Grimshaw, J. (1999). Developing clinical guidelines. Western Journal of Medicine, 170(6), 348.</li>
</ol>

Likelihood Ratios - Likilihood ratios are used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test. They use sensitivity and specificity to determine whether a test result usefully changes the practitioner's chance (probability) of reaching the correct assessment. Calculation of likelihood ratios is based on Baye's theorem.
<ul>
 	<li>Positive Likelihood Ratio (LR+) - The ratio of a positive test result in people with the pathology to a positive test result in people without the pathology.</li>
 	<li>Negative Likelihood Ratio (LR-) - The ratio of a negative test result in people with the pathology to a negative test result in people without the pathology.</li>
</ul>

Longitudinal Study - a research design that involves observing the same variables, several times over a period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Hewett et al. (1) is a type of longitudinal study called a "cohort study." This study investigated whether excessive knee valgus during landing was a predictor of knee injury risk in adolescent females over the course of a season.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/research-review-increased-valgus-during-landing-predicts-acl-injury-in-adolescent-female-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501</a></li>
</ol>

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