Stability Training
Stability Training: An exercise or rehabilitation program designed to enhance the body's ability to stabilize (maintain or regain balance). A stability training program prioritizes exercise progression over increasing repetitions, sets, load, or speed.
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Course Description: Stability Training
Definition:
- Stability Training: An exercise or rehabilitation program designed to enhance the body's ability to stabilize (maintain or regain balance). A stability training program prioritizes exercise progression over increasing repetitions, sets, load, or speed. For example, progressing from a plank to a plank on a stability ball increases the stability challenge. Reducing the base of support during this exercise from two feet on the ground to a single foot would be an additional stability progression.
Introduction:
This course discusses stability training, including core stability training, upper body stability training, lower body stability training, balance training, injury prevention, and the use of stability training in physical rehabilitation. A comprehensive systematic research review was used to develop evidence-based progressions and regressions for all large movement patterns (muscle groups), including the use of unstable loads and environments. Additionally, stability training outcomes and adaptations are discussed in detail: EMG activity, motor pattern recruitment, fatigue, rate of force development, balance, muscle endurance, muscle strength, muscle hypertrophy (muscle growth), sports performance, injury prevention, and injury recovery.
Research Review Findings:
Some findings from the included systematic review resulted in counter-intuitive, or at least less conventional recommendations. For example, there are a few studies that suggest unstable environments (e.g. core stability exercises on a Bosu Ball) may exaggerate altered recruitment patterns in those exhibiting dysfunction. This may imply that corrective exercise (e.g. serratus anterior activation ) should precede multi-joint stability exercises. Additionally, research suggests that unstable loads result in larger changes in EMG activity than unstable surfaces/environments. This may imply that slosh pipes, sandbags, hanging/swinging loads, etc., should be considered more often and perhaps be prioritized over unstable environments like foam pads, Bosu balls, and balance boards.
Movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider stability training a pillar of performance, injury prevention, and rehabilitation programming, and the recommendation of progressions and regressions based on stability, an essential skill. This course is part of our continued effort to optimize, evidence-based “exercise program design” recommendations.
Pre-approved Credits for:
Pre-approved for Continuing Education Credits for:
- Athletic Trainers
- Chiropractors
- Group Exercise Instructors
- Massage Therapists
- Occupational Therapists - Intermediate
- Personal Trainers
- Physical Therapists
- Physical Therapy Assistants
- Physiotherapists
This course includes:
- AI Tutor
- Course Summary Webinar
- Study Guide
- Text and Illustrations
- Audio Voice-over
- Research Review
- Technique Videos
- Case Study and Sample Routine
- Practice Exam
- Pre-approved 2 Credit Final Exam
Stability Course Outline:
- Introduction:
- Definition
- Models
- Stability training for performance enhancement
- Stability training for rehabilitation
- Healing tissues
- Balance deficits
- Chronic ankle sprain
- Low back pain
- Special Note: Corrective Exercise
- Stability Training Research by Movement Pattern/Muscle Group:
- Lower Body
- Squatting
- Comparing the squat, lunge, Bulgarian split-squat, and single-leg squat
- Comparing the squat, step-up, and single-leg squat
- Comparing unilateral lower body exercise on stable and unstable surfaces
- Upper Body
- Push-up
- Chest Press
- Overhead Press
- Inverted Row
- Core
- Planks and side planks
- Glute bridge
- Quadrupeds
Additional Courses:
- Exercise Progressions:
- Resistance Training
- Core

Course Study Guide: Stability Training
Introduction2 Sub Sections
Definitions
Models
Unstable Surface Training in a Rehabilitation Setting
Stability Training for Performance Enhancement
Lower Body Stability Training5 Sub Sections
Upper Body Stability Training4 Sub Sections
Upper Body Exercise Summary
Core Stability Training4 Sub Sections
Sample Routine: Intermediate Stability/Endurance
Bibliography
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- Hodges, P. W. and Danneels, L. (2019) Changes in structure and function of the back muscles in low back pain: different time points, observations, and mechanisms. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 49(6), 464-476
- Local and Global Stability Systems
- Comerford, M. J. and Mottram, S. L. (2001) Functional stability re-training: principles and strategies for mechanical dysfunction. Manual Therapy, 6(1), 3-14
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- Unstable Surface Training
- Behm, D. and Colado, J. C. (2012) The effectiveness of resistance training using unstable surfaces and devices for rehabilitation. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 7(2), 226-241
- Ogaya, S., Ikezoe, T., Soda, N. and Ichihashi, N. (2011) Effects of balance training using wobble boards in the elderly. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(9), 2616-2622
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- Bruhn, S., Kullmann, N. and Gollhofer, A. (2004) The effects of a sensorimotor training and a strength training on postural stabilisation, maximum isometric contraction and jump performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 25(1), 56-60
- Kibele, A. and Behm, D. G. (2009) Seven weeks of instability and traditional resistance training effects on strength, balance and functional performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2443-2450
- Balance Training for Chronic Ankle Instability
- Kim, K. J., Kim. Y. E., Jun, H. J., Lee, J. S., Ji, S. H., Ji, S. G., Seo, T. H. and Kim, Y. O. (2014) Which treatment is more effective for functional ankle instability: strengthening or combined muscle strengthening and proprioceptive exercises? Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 26, 385-388
- Cruz-Diaz, D., Lomas-Vega, R., Osuna-Perez, M. C., Contreras, F. H. and Martinez-Amat, A. (2015) Effect of 6 weeks of balance training on chronic ankle instability in athletes: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 36, 754-760
- Kim, E., Choi, H., Cha, J. H., Park, J. C. and Kim, T. (2017) Effects of neuromuscular training on the rear-foot angle kinematics in elite women field hockey players with chronic ankle instability. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 16, 137-146
- Donovan, L., Hart, J. M., Saliba, S. A., Park, J., Feger, M. A., Herb, C. C. and Hertel, J. (2016) Rehabilitation for chronic ankle instability with or without destabilization devices: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(3), 233-251
- Unstable Training for Low-Back Pain
- Javadian, Y., Behtash, H., Akbari, M., Taghipour-Darzi, M. and Zekavat, H. (2012) The effects of pain on disability of patients with lumbar segmental instability. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, 25, 149-155
- Kang, T. W., Lee, J. H., Park, D. H., Cynn, H. S. (2018) Effect of 6-week lumbar stabilization exercise performed on stable versus unstable surfaces in automobile assembly workers with mechanical chronic low back pain. Work, 60(3), 445-454
- Ko, K. J., Ha, G. C., Yook, Y. S. and Kang, S. J. (2018) Effects of 12-week lumbar stabilization exercise and sling exercise on lumbosacral region angle, lumbar muscle strength, and pain scale of patients with chronic low back pain. The Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 30, 18-22
- Moon, H, J., Choi, K. H., Kim, D. H., Kim, H. J., Cho, Y. K., Lee, K. H., Kim, J. H. and Choi, Y. J. (2013) Effect of lumbar stabilization and dynamic lumbar strengthening exercises in patients with chronic low back pain. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine, 37(1), 110-117
- Corrective Exercise First:
- Pirauá, A. L. T., Pitangui, A. C. R., Silva, J. P., dos Passos, M. H. P., de Oliveira, V. M. A., Batista, L. D. S. P., & de Araújo, R. C. (2014). Electromyographic analysis of the serratus anterior and trapezius muscles during push-ups on stable and unstable bases in subjects with scapular dyskinesis. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 24(5), 675-681.
- de Araujo, R. C., Piraua, A. L. T., Beltrao, N. B. and Pitangui, A. C. R. (2018) Activity of periscapular muscles and its correlation with external oblique during push-up: does scapular dyskinesis change the electromyographic response? Journal of Sports Science, 36(5), 571-577
- Park, K. M., Cynn, H. S., Kwon, O. Y., Yi, C. H., Yoon, T. L., & Lee, J. H. (2014). Comparison of pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscle activities during different push-up plus exercises in subjects with and without scapular winging. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(9), 2546-2551.
- Cools, A.M., Witvrouw, E.E., Declercq, G.A., Danneels, L.A., Cambier, D.C. (2003) Scapular muscle recruitment patterns: Trapezius muscle latency with and without impingement symptoms. The American Journal of Sports Medicine 31(4). 542-549
- Scovazzo, M.L., Browne, A., Pink, M., Jobe, F.W., and Kerrigan, J. (1991). The painful shoulder during freestyle swimming: An electromyographic cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(6). 577-582
- Stability Training for Performance Enhancement
- Bruhn, S., Kullmann, N. and Gollhofer, A. (2004) The effects of a sensorimotor training and a strength training on postural stabilisation, maximum isometric contraction and jump performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 25(1), 56-60
- Nepocatych, S., Ketcham, C. J., Vallabhajosula, S. and Balilionis, G. (2018) The effects of unstable surface balance training on postural sway, stability, functional ability and flexibility in women. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 58(1-2), 27-34
- Sparkes, R. and Behm, D. G. (2010) Training adaptations associated with an 8-week instability resistance training program with recreationally active individuals. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1931-1941
- Kibele, A. and Behm, D. G. (2009) Seven weeks of instability and traditional resistance training effects on strength, balance and functional performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2443-2450
- Yaggie, J. A. and Campbell, B. M. (2006) Effects of balance training on selected skills. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(2), 422-428
- Saeterbakken, A. H., van den Tillaar, R. and Seiler, S. (2011) Effect of core stability training on throwing velocity in female handball players. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(3), 712-718
- Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Brent, J. L. and Hewett, T. E. (2006) The effects of plyometric vs. dynamic stabilization and balance training on power, balance, and landing force in female athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(2), 345-353
- Kean, C. O., Behm, D. G. and Young, W. B. (2006) Fixed foot balance training increases rectus femoris activation during landing and jump height in recreationally active women. Journal of sports Science and Medicine, 5(1), 138-148
- Taube, W., Kullman, N., Leukel, C., Kurz, O., Amtage, F. and Gollhofer, A. (2007) Differential reflex adaptations following sensorimotor and strength training in young elite athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28, 999-1005
- Squats
- Park, J. K., Lee, D. Y., Kim, J. S., Hong, J. H., You, J. H. and Park, I. M. (2015) Effects of visibility and types of the ground surface on the muscle activities of the vastus medialis oblique and vastus lateralis. Journal of Physical Therapy Sciences, 27, 2435-2437
- Han, D., Nam, S., Song, J., Lee, W. and Kang, T. (2017) The effect of knee flexion angles and ground conditions on the muscle activation of the lower extremity in the squat position. The Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 29, 1852-1855.
- Li, Y., Cao, C. and Chen, X. (2013) Similar electromyographic activities of lower limbs between squatting on a reebok core board and ground. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(5), 1349-1353
- Andersen, V., Fimland, M. S., Brennset, O., Haslestad, L. R., Lundteigen, M. S., Skalleberg, K. and Saeterbakken, A. H. (2014) Muscle activation and strength in squat and Bulgarian squat on stable and unstable surface. Sports Medicine, 35, 1196-1202
- Saeterbakken, A. H. and Fimland, M. S. (2013) Muscle force output and electromyographic activity in squats with various unstable surfaces. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(1), 130-136
- Lawrence, M. A. and Carlson, L. A. (2015) Effects of an unstable load on force and muscle activation during a parallel back squat. Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 29(10), 2949-2953
- Ditroilo, M., O'Sullivan, R., Harnan, B., Crossey, A., Gillmor, B., Dardis, W. and Grainger, A. (2018) Water-filled training tubes increase core muscle activation and somatosensory control of balance during squat. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(17), 2002-2008
- Compared Squats, Lunges and Bulgarian Split Squats (including source #43)
- Stuart, M. J., Meglan, D. A., Lutz, G. E., Growney, E. S. and An, K. N. (1996) Comparison of intersegmental tibiofemoral joint forces and muscle acdtivity during various closed kinetic chain exercises. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 24(6), 792-799
- DeForest, B. A., Cantrell, G. S. and Schilling, B. K. (2014) Muscle activity in single- vs. double-leg squats. International Journal of Exercise Science, 7(4), 302-310
- Jones, M. T., Ambegaonkar, J. P., Nindl, B. C., Smith, J. A. and Headley, S. A. (2012) Effects of unilateral and bilateral lower-body heavy resistance exercise on muscle activity and testosterone responses. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 26(4), 1094-1100
- McCurdy, K., O'Kelley, E., Kutz, M., Langford, G., Ernest, J. and Torres, M. (2010) Comparison of lower extremity EMG between the 2-leg squat and modified single-leg squat in female athletes. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 19, 57-70
- McCurdy, K., Walker, J. and Yuen, D. Gluteus maximus and hamstring activation during selected weight-bearing resistance exercises. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
- The squat, step-up and single-leg squat
- Lubahn, A. J., Kernozek, T. W., Tyson, T. L., Merkitch, K. W., Reutemann, P. and Chestnut, J. M. (2011) Hip muscle activation and knee frontal plane motion during weight bearing therapeutic exercises. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 6(2), 92-103
- Eliassen, W., Saeterbakken, A. H. and van den Tillaar, R. (2018) Comparison of bilateral and unilateral squat exercises on barbell kinematics and muscle activation. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 13(5), 871-881
- Comparing Unilateral Exercises on Stable and Unstable Surfaces (including source #43)
- Krause, D. A., Elliott, J. J., Fraboni, D. F., McWilliams, T. J., Rebhan, R. L. and Hollman, J. H. (2018) Electromyography of the hip and thigh muscles during two variations of the lunge exercise: a cross-sectional study. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 13(2), 137-14
- Krause, D. A., Jacobs, R. S., Pilger, K. E., Sather, B. R., Sibunka, S. P. and Hollman, J. H. (2009) Electromyographic analysis of the gluteus medius in five weight-bearing exercises. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2689-2694.
- DiStefano, L. J., Blackburn, J. T., Marshall, S. W. and Padua, D. A. (2009) Gluteal muscle activation during common therapeutic exercises. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 39(7), 532-540
- Begalle, R. L., DiStefano, L. J., Blackburn, T. and Padua, D. A. (2012) Quadriceps and hamstrings coactivation during common therapeutic exercises. Journal of Athletic Training, 47(4), 396-405
- Boren, K., Conrey, C., Le Coguic, J., Paprocki, L., Voight, M. and Robinson, T. K. (2011) Electromyographic analysis of gluteus medius and gluteus maximus during rehabilitation exercises. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 6(3), 206-223
- Push-up on Stable and Unstable Surfaces
- de Araujo, R. C., Piraua, A. L. T., Beltrao, N. B. and Pitangui, A. C. R. (2018) Activity of periscapular muscles and its correlation with external oblique during push-up: does scapular dyskinesis change the electromyographic response? Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(5), 571-577
- Park, S. Y. and Yoo, W. G. (2011) Differential activation of parts of the serratus anterior muscle during push-up variations on stable and unstable bases of support. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 21, 861-867
- Gioftsos, G., Arvanitidis, M., Tsimouris, D., Kanellopoulos, A., Paras, G., Trigkas, P. and Sakellari, V. (2016) EMG activity of the serratus anterior and trapezius muscles during different phases of the push-up plus exercise on different support surfaces and different hand positions. The Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 28, 2114-2118
- McGill, S. M., Cannon, J. and Andersen, J. T. (2014) Analysis of pushing exercises: muscle activity and spine load while contrasting techniques on stable surfaces with a labile suspension strap training system. Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 28(1), 105-116
- Harris, S., Ruffin, E., Brewer, W. and Ortiz, A. (2017) Muscle activation patterns during suspension training exercises. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 12(1), 42-52.
- Snarr, R. and Esco, M. R. (2013) Electromyographic comparison of traditional and suspension push-ups. Journal of Human Kinetics, 39, 75-83
- Borreani, S., Calatayud, J., Colado, J. C., Moya-Najera, D., Triplett, N. T. and Martin, F. (2015) Muscle activation during push-ups performed under stable and unstable conditions. Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness, 13(2), 94-98
- Calatayud, J., Borreani, S., Colado, J. C., Martin, F. and Rogers, M. E. (2014) Muscle activity levels in upper-body push exercises with different loads and stability conditions. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 42(4), 106-119
- Torres, R. J. B., Piraua, A. L. T., Nacimento, V. Y. S., dos Santos, P. S., Beltrao, N. B., de Oliveira, V. M. A., Pitangui, A. C. R. and de Araujo, R. C. (2016) Shoulder muscle activation levels during the push-up plus exercise on stable and unstable surfaces. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, doi: 10.1123/jsr.2016-0050
- de Araujo, R. C., Nascimento, V. Y. S., Torres, R. J. B., Behm, D. and Ptinagui, C. R. (2019) Can the use of unstable surfaces and instruction for conscious abdominal contraction increase the EMG activity of the periscapular muscles during the dynamic push-up? Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, doi: 10.1123/jsr.2018-0165
- Seo, S. H., Jeon, I. H., Cho, Y. H., Lee, H. G., Hwang, Y. T. and Jang, J. H. (2013) Surface EMG during the push-up plus exercise on a stable support or swiss ball: scapular stabilizer muscle exercise. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 25(7), 833-837
- Lehman, G. J., MacMillan, B., MacIntyre, I., Chivers, M., & Fluter, M. (2006). Shoulder muscle EMG activity during push up variations on and off a Swiss ball. Dynamic Medicine, 5(1), 7.
- Lehman, G. J., Gilas, D., & Patel, U. (2008). An unstable support surface does not increase scapulothoracic stabilizing muscle activity during push up and push up plus exercises. Manual therapy, 13(6), 500-506.
- Beach, T. A. C., Howarth, S. J. and Callaghan, J. P. (2008) Muscular contribution to low-back loading and stiffness during standard and suspended push-ups. Human Movement Science, 27, 457-472
- Maeo, S., Chou, T., Yamamoto, M. and Kanehisa, H. (2014) Muscular activities during sling- and ground-based push-up exercise. BMC Research Notes, 7, 192-198
- Scovazzo, M. L., Browne, A., Pink, M., Jobe, F. W., & Kerrigan, J. (1991). The painful shoulder during freestyle swimming: an electromyographic cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. The American journal of sports medicine, 19(6), 577-582.
- Chest Press on Stable and Unstable Surfaces
- Lawrence, M. A., Ostrowski, S. J., Leib, D. J. and Carlson, L. A. (2018) Effect of unstable loads on stabilizing muscles and bar motion during the bench press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,
- Lawrence, M. A., Leib, D. J., Ostrowski, S. J. and Carlson, L. A. (2017) Nonlinear analysis of an unstable bench press bar path and muscle activation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 31(5), 1206-1211
- Dunnick, D. D., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., Lynn, S. K. and Barillas, S. R. (2015) Bench press upper-body muscle activation between stable and unstable loads. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(12), 3279-3283
- Ostrowski, S. J., Carlson, L. A. and Lawrence, M. A. (2017) Effect of an unstable load on primary and stabilizing muscles during the bench press. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(2), 430-434
- Campbell, B. M., Kutz, M. R., Morgan, A. L., Fullenkamp, A. M. and Ballenger, R. (2014) An evaluation of upper-body muscle activation during coupled and uncoupled instability resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(7), 1833-1838
- Uribe, B. P., Coburn, J. W., Brown, L. E., Judelson, D. A., Khamoui, A. V. and Nguyen, D. (2010) Muscle activation when performing the chest press and shoulder press on a stable bench vs. a Swiss ball. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(4), 1028-1033
- Marshall, P. W. M. and Murphy, B. A. (2006) Increased deltoid and abdominal muscle activity during Swiss ball bench press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(4), 745-750
- Goodman, C. A., Pearce, A. J., Nicholes, C. J., Gatt, B. M. and Fairweather, I. H. (2008) No difference in 1RM strength and muscle activation during the barbell chest press on a stable and unstable surface. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 88-94
- Lehman, G. J., Gordon, T., Langley, J., Pemrose, P. and Tregaskis, S. (2005) Replacing a Swiss ball for an exercise bench causes variable changes in trunk muscle activity during limb strength exercises. Dynamic Medicine, 4(6), doi: 10.1186/1476-5918-4-6
- Saeterbakken, A. H. and Fimland, M. S. (2013) Electromyographic activity and 6RM strength in bench press on stable and unstable surfaces. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(4), 1101-1107
- Norwood, J., Anderson, G. S., Gaetz, M. and Twist, P. (2007) Electromyographic activity of the trunk stabilizers during stable and unstable bench press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(2), 497-502
- Overhead Press Exercise on Stable and Unstable Surfaces
- Williams Jr., M. R., Hendricks, D. S., Dannen, M. J., Arnold, A. M. and Lawrence M. A. (2018) Activity of shoulder stabilizers and prime movers during an unstable overhead press. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000002660
- Kohler, J. M., Flanagan, S. P. and Whiting, W. C. (2010) Muscle activation patterns while lifting stable and unstable loads on stable and unstable surfaces. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(2), 313-321.
- The Inverted Row with Stable and Unstable Environments (and 63)
- Snarr, R. L. and Esco, M. R. (2013) Comparison of electromyographic activity when performing an inverted row with and without a suspension device. Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 16(6), 51-58
- Snarr, R., Nickerson, B. S. and Esco, M. R. (2014) Effects of hand-grip during the inverted row with and without a suspension device: an electromyographic investigation. European Journal of Sports and Exercise Science, 3(4), 1-5
- McGill, S., Cannon, J. and Andersen, J. (2014) Muscle activity and spine load during pulling exercises: influence of stable and labile contact surfaces and technique coaching. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, doi: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2014.06.002
- Youdas, J. W., Hubble, M. W., Johnson, P. G., McCarthy, M. M., Saenz, M. M. and Hollman, J. H. (2018) Scapular muscle balance and spinal stabilizer recruitment during an inverted row. Physiotherapy theory and practice, doi: 10.1080/09593985.2018.1486491
- Fenwick, C. M., Brown, S. H., & McGill, S. M. (2009). Comparison of different rowing exercises: trunk muscle activation and lumbar spine motion, load, and stiffness. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(5), 1408-1417.
- Saeterbakken, A., Andersen, V., Brudeseth, A., Lund, H., & Fimland, M. S. (2015). The effect of performing bi-and unilateral row exercises on core muscle activation. International journal of sports medicine, 94(11), 900-905.
- The Front-Plank and Side-Plank on Stable vs Unstable Surfaces:
- Cho, M., Shim, S., Jung, J., & Chung, Y. (2019). Comparison of trunk muscle activity according to hip abduction angle during plank exercise. Physical Therapy Rehabilitation Science, 8(3), 162-169.
- Escamilla, R. F., Lewis, C., Pecson, A., Imamura, R., & Andrews, J. R. (2016). Muscle activation among supine, prone, and side position exercises with and without a Swiss ball. Sports health, 8(4), 372-379.
- Kim, E. S., Gil, D. S., Kim, S. B., Hong, J. H., Lee, D. Y., Yu, J. H., & Kim, J. S. (2019). The Comparisons of Different Abdominal Drawing-in Maneuver During Plank exercises on trunk stability. Medico Legal Update, 19(2), 404-410.
- Lee, D., Lee, Y., Cho, H. Y., Lee, K. B., Hong, S., Pyo, S., & Lee, G. (2017). Investigation of trunk muscle activity for modified plank exercise: a preliminary study. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 25(3), 209-213.
- Lee, J., Jeong, K. H., Lee, H., Shin, J. Y., Choi, J. L., Kang, S. B., & Lee, B. H. (2016). Comparison of three different surface plank exercises on core muscle activity. Physical Therapy Rehabilitation Science, 5(1), 29-33.
- Park, Y. A., Kim, E. J., Cha, H. Y., Ryu, H. W., Seo, Y. H., Seong, J. Y., … & Choi, B. R. (2020). Effects of various plank exercises on activation of hamstring muscle. Journal of Korean Physical Therapy Science, 27(1), 51-55.
- Mirmohammad, R., Minoonejhad, H., & Sheikhhoseini, R. (2019). Ultrasonographic Comparison of Deep Lumbopelvic Muscles Activity in Plank Movements on Stable and Unstable Surface. Physical Treatments-Specific Physical Therapy Journal, 9(3), 147-152.
- Cho, Yong-Ho, and Jin-Ho Choi. "Difference in Muscle Activities According to Stability on Support Surface During Plank Exercise." Korean Society of Physical Medicine 12.3 (2017): 73-77.
- Czaprowski, D., Afeltowicz, A., Gębicka, A., Pawłowska, P., Kędra, A., Barrios, C., & Hadała, M. (2014). Abdominal muscle EMG-activity during bridge exercises on stable and unstable surfaces. Physical therapy in sport, 15(3), 162-168.
- Imai, A., Kaneoka, K., Okubo, Y., Shiina, I., Tatsumura, M., Izumi, S., & Shiraki, H. (2010). Trunk muscle activity during lumbar stabilization exercises on both a stable and unstable surface. Journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 40(6), 369-375.
- Atkins, S. J., Bentley, I., Brooks, D., Burrows, M. P., Hurst, H. T., & Sinclair, J. K. (2015). Electromyographic response of global abdominal stabilizers in response to stable-and unstable-base isometric exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(6), 1609-1615.
- Shin, Y. A. (2014). Comparison of core stabilizer muscle activity according to movement difficulty and stability during various trx plank. The Official Journal of the Korean Academy of Kinesiology, 16(4), 31-41.
- Kang, K. W., Son, S. M., & Ko, Y. M. (2016). Changes in abdominal muscle thickness and balance ability on plank exercises with various surfaces. The Journal of Korean Physical Therapy, 28(5), 264-268.
- Bak, J., Shim, S., Cho, M., & Chung, Y. (2017). The effect of plank exercises with hip abduction using sling on trunk muscle activation in healthy adults. The Journal of Korean Physical Therapy, 29(3), 128-134.
- Snarr, R. L., & Esco, M. R. (2014). Electromyographical comparison of plank variations performed with and without instability devices. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3298-3305.
- Byrne, J. M., Bishop, N. S., Caines, A. M., Crane, K. A., Feaver, A. M., & Pearcey, G. E. (2014). Effect of using a suspension training system on muscle activation during the performance of a front plank exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3049-3055.
- Wang, J. (2019). Effects of Sling Forearm Plank Exercises on Superficial Back Line Muscle Tone and Stiffness. Journal of International Academy of Physical Therapy Research, 10(1), 1695-1699.
- Imai, A., Kaneoka, K., Okubo, Y., & Shiraki, H. (2014). Comparison of the immediate effect of different types of trunk exercise on the star excursion balance test in male adolescent soccer players. International journal of sports physical therapy, 9(4), 428.
- Glute Bridge
- Ekstrom, R. A., Donatelli, R. A and Carp, K. C. (2007) Electromyographic analysis of core trunk, hip, and thigh muscles during 9 rehabilitation exercises. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 37(12), 754-762
- Cho, M., Bak, J., & Chung, Y. (2016). The effects of performing a one-legged bridge with use of a sling on trunk and gluteal muscle activation. Physical Therapy Rehabilitation Science, 5(2), 70-77.
- Youdas, J. W., Hartman, J. P., Murphy, B. A., Rundle, A. M., Ugorowski, J. M. and Hollman, J. H. (2015) Magnitudes of muscle activation of spine stabilizers, gluteals, and hamstrings during supine bridge to neutral position. Physiotherapy theory and practice, doi: 10.3109/09593985.2015.1010672
- Yoo, I. G., & Yoo, W. G. (2012). Effects of different bridge exercises for the elderly on trunk and gluteal muscles. Journal of Physical Therapy Science, 24(4), 319-320.
- Lee, K., Kim, M., Ha, H., & Lee, W. (2017). Comparison of lateral abdominal muscle thickness during bridge exercises with different support surfaces in healthy individuals. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 25(4), 301-308.
- Kang, J. H., & Shim, J. H. (2015). Comparison of trunk muscles thickness in three different bridge exercises by ultrasound fusion imaging. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 6(5), 123-130.
- Kong, Yong-soo, et al. "Change in trunk muscle activities with prone bridge exercise in patients with chronic low back pain." Journal of physical therapy science 28.1 (2016): 264-268.
- Son, H. H. (2015). Trunk Muscle Activation during Bridge Exercise with Various Shoulder Supporting Surfaces. Journal of Korean Society of Physical Medicine, 10(3), 299-304.
- Kim, H., Bae, W., & Lee, K. (2017). Comparison of the abdominal muscle thickness and activity by using tool and unstable surface which is accompanied bridge exercise doing abdominal drawing-in breath. Journal of the Korean society of integrative medicine, 5(1), 25-34.
- Mello, R. G. T., Carri, I. R., da Matta, T. T., Nadal, J., & Oliveira, L. F. (2016). Lumbar multifidus and erector spinae electromyograms during back bridge exercise in time and frequency domains. Journal of back and musculoskeletal rehabilitation, 29(1), 123-133.
- Park, H. J., Oh, D. W., & Kim, S. Y. (2014). Effects of integrating hip movements into bridge exercises on electromyographic activities of selected trunk muscles in healthy individuals. Manual therapy, 19(3), 246-251.
- Cho, M. (2015). The effects of bridge exercise with the abdominal drawing-in maneuver on an unstable surface on the abdominal muscle thickness of healthy adults. Journal of physical therapy science, 27(1), 255-257.
- Cho, Misuk, and Hyewon Jeon. "The effects of bridge exercise on an unstable base of support on lumbar stability and the thickness of the transversus abdominis." Journal of physical therapy science 25, no. 6 (2013): 733-736.
- Gong, W. (2015). The effect of bridge exercise accompanied by the abdominal drawing-in maneuver on an unstable support surface on the lumbar stability of normal adults. Journal of physical therapy science, 27(1), 47-50.
- Yoon, J. O., Kang, M. H., Kim, J. S. and Oh, J. S. (2018) Effect of modified bridge exercise on trunk muscle activity in healthy adults: a cross sectional study. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy, 22(2), 161-167
- Bak, J. W., Cho, M. K., & Chung, Y. J. (2016). The effects of performing a one-legged bridge with hip abduction and unstable surface on trunk and gluteal muscle activation in healthy adults. The Journal of Korean Physical Therapy, 28(3), 205-211.
- Saliba, S. A., Croy, T., Guthrie, R., Grooms, D., Weltman, A., & Grindstaff, T. L. (2010). Differences in transverse abdominis activation with stable and unstable bridging exercises in individuals with low back pain. North American journal of sports physical therapy: NAJSPT, 5(2), 63.
- Imai, A., Kaneoka, K., Okubo, Y., Shiina, I., Tatsumura, M., Izumi, S. and Shiraki, H. (2010) Trunk muscle activity during lumbar stabilization exercises on both a stable and unstable surface. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 40(6), 369-375
- Czaprowski, D., Afeltowicz, A., Gebicka, A., Palowska, P., Kedra, A., Barrios, C. and Hadala, M. (2014) Abdominal muscle EMG-activity during bridge exercises on stable and unstable surfaces. Physical Therapy in Sport, 15(3), 162-168
- Quadrupeds
- Pirouzi, S., Emami, F., Taghizadeh, S., & Ghanbari, A. (2013). Is Abdominal muscle activity different from lumbar muscle activity during four-point kneeling?. Iranian journal of medical sciences, 38(4), 327.
- Bae, C. H., Kim, S. H., & Kim, M. K. (2020). Comparison of Muscle Activity of Trunk Muscles According to the Weight Shift Distance in Quadruped Exercise. The Journal of Korean Academy of Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapy, 26(1), 27-36.
- Lee, J. Y., Park, M. E., Kim, J. S., Hong, J. H., Yu, J. H., & Lee, D. Y. (2015). The Efect of Muscle Activation in Trunk Stabilization Exercise According to the Joint Angle of Normal Adults. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 8, 19.
- Masaki, M., Tateuchi, H., Tsukagoshi, R., Ibuki, S., & Ichihashi, N. (2015). Electromyographic analysis of training to selectively strengthen the lumbar multifidus muscle: effects of different lifting directions and weight loading of the extremities during quadruped upper and lower extremity lifts. Journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics, 38(2), 138-144.
- Kang, J. I., Park, J. S., Jeong, D. K., Choi, H. H., & Moon, Y. J. (2018). Effects on muscle activities according to the type of bodyblade exercise in quadruped position. Journal of physical therapy science, 30(6), 862-865.
- Kim, J. H., So, K. H., Bae, Y. R., & Lee, B. H. (2014). A comparison of flexi-bar and general lumbar stabilizing exercise effects on muscle activity and fatigue. Journal of physical therapy science, 26(2), 229-233.
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