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Power (High-velocity) Training: Introduction Audio

Introduction to power and high-velocity training - recommended progressions, sets, and repetitions for upper and lower body power and explosive exercise. Muscular, neural, and force requirement between power training, strength training, and Olympic lifting.

Power (High-velocity) Training: Introduction

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This course discusses power training, which could be viewed as a type of strength training (a.k.a. weight training, resistance training, strength workout) specifically designed to improve activities that require high velocity or maximal speed. For example, a power training routine may be designed to improve vertical jump height, and may not be beneficial for improving 1-repetition maximum strength during a back squat.

A comprehensive systematic research review is included in this course, detailing the neural adaptations, muscle adaptations (morphological changes), effect on short and long-term hormone concentrations, comparisons between strength and power training, and evidence-based recommendations for acute variables (reps, intensity, frequency, volume, power specific cues) and programming. Some findings from the included systematic review resulted in counter-intuitive, or at least less conventional recommendations. For example, the use of bodyweight resistance during many exercises may be more beneficial than barbell-loaded variations, and there is research to suggest that Olympic lifts are not ideal for power training.

Movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider power training a pillar of athletic performance training, and potentially beneficial for fitness and rehabilitation programs. This course is part of our continued effort to optimize, evidence-based “exercise program design” recommendations.

Power Training: Upper Body and Total Body Exercises

Some Helpful Definitions for Learning about Power Training

 “How fast did you work?”, Power = Force x Distance/Time. In health and human performance power most often refers to high-velocity activity.

 - The force-velocity curve expresses the relationship between the amount of force a muscle can generate and the velocity of the moving joint. Generally, an increase in peak power will result in a shift up and to the right of the force/velocity curve, representing a significant increase in the rate of force development (RFD).

 - The transitional phase between eccentric and concentric contractions. For example, during a counter movement jump (CMJ), the initial quick descent and backswing of the arms would be the eccentric phase, and the bottom position would be the amortization phase. Generally, the focus is placed on shortening the amortization phase during training.

- A successive combination of eccentric and concentric action; resulting in more power generated during the concentric action than would be generated if the concentric action was performed alone. Research suggests high-velocity SSC contractions start with a forceful eccentric lengthening of muscle fibers while EMG activity increases, followed by a period of near isometric contraction of the activated muscle fibers while the tendon continues to lengthen, followed by shortening of both the tendon and the muscle fiber complex during the concentric contraction.

Brookbush Institute Position Statement for Power Training

A combination of max strength and power training is likely ideal for improving high-velocity activity performance. When training specifically for power (maximum velocity and speed), repetition velocity is the most important acute variable. Repetitions should include a stretch-shortening cycle and a force-velocity curve that is analogous to the activities being trained for. Generally, this implies that power training repetitions should include a quick eccentric load, an amortization phase, a follow-through (no deceleration to stay on the ground or hold on to an object), and soft catches and landings. Load should be limited to the amount of resistance that can be used without decreasing velocity. Research implies that ideal acute variable recommendations for power exercise are 3-5 sets/muscle group and 3-10 repetitions performed until velocity decreases/set.

Course Description: Power Training

Brookbush Institute Power (High-velocity) Training Introduction Course Study Guide

Study Guide: Power (High-velocity) Training: Introduction

Position Statement and Practical Application

Dr. Brent Brookbush instructing the box jump exercise

Terminology

Introduction: Power Training

Adaptations to Power Training

An explosive (powerful) start from sprinters in a track meet

Training Types

Acute Variables

 Box jumps are another effective tool to improve power production

Training Guidelines, Acute Variables and Progressions

Summary of Research Review

Illustration of elbow flexors. Note: The elbow flexors each pull in a linear fashion, but the elbow forces the joint to move in an arc.

Power and Torque

The contraction and relaxation process of a muscle, with myofilaments in the sarcomere labeled

Examples of exercies in the force velocity curve

Force Velocity Curve

Definitions (Foundational Concepts)

The nerves in the body, labeled with their locations outlined

Rate Coding

An image of a muscle, the fibers of the muscle, and the innervation of the motor unit

Power and an Increase in EMG Activity

Co-Contraction

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating the lateral hop to single leg sagittal plane hop to balance exercise

Stretch Shortening Cycle

Neural Adaptations

 In consideration of the following section, it is important to note that research has demonstrated that type IIx myosin isoforms have the fastest contraction velocity, followed by type IIa, and then type I fibers. From 

"Type IIB/X fiber contraction speeds range from 0.94-5.59 fiber lengths per second, which is 49% faster than Type IIA fibers, with fiber force output ranging from 0.95-1.30 Newton meters, which may be 4-percent less force than Type IIA. Type I fibers have contraction speeds ranging from 0.28-1.65 fiber lengths per second, and lower force production per fiber ranging from 0.47-1.01 Newton-meters."

ATPase Staining of a Muscle Cross-Sectional Area

Fiber Types Proportion and Rate of Force Delvelopment

Changes in Fiber Type Proportion from Training

More Complex than Type IIX

Note the direction and shape of the various muscle fibers

Muscle Architecture and Power

Muscle Fiber Adaptations

Several studies have investigated the relationship between enzymes, hormones, and power performance. It should be noted that this paragraph only includes research that specifically investigated high velocity activity and hormones. Studies related to hormones and hypertrophy, or hormones and maximal strength are discussed in other courses. Costill et al. obtained fiber samples from the gastrocnemius of 17 female and 23 male track and field athletes and compared them to 10 untrained males and 11 untrained females. Findings demonstrated that increased succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity was strongly correlated with VO2max, increased average type I fiber proportion, and was higher in endurance athletes. Lactic dehydrogenase was correlated with an increased proportion of type II fiber and was higher in sprint athletes. Strength athletes exhibited a larger variety of fiber compositions, but relatively low enzyme levels (98). Argus et al. demonstrated that over a rugby season, players exhibited a small increase in testosterone and testosterone to cortisol ratio, as well as increases in strength and power; however, no correlations were identified between hormone levels and individual differences in power performance (99). In a two-year study of 9 elite weight lifters, Hakkinen et al. demonstrated a correlation between the amount of increase in resting testosterone and changes in average concentric power; this may imply long-term changes to the pituitary and possibly hypothalamic activity (100). Stoessel et al. demonstrated that female weightlifters were leaner and more powerful (vertical jump and static vertical jump performance), but had similar resting serum hormones, lipid, and glucose concentrations when compared to untrained controls (101). These studies suggest that experience may have an effect on enzyme levels and power; however, the correlation between experience, altered hormone levels, and power is likely weak.

Additional studies have investigated the effects of training on performance and changes in hormone and enzyme levels. Dawson et al. demonstrated that 16 sprint sessions in 6 weeks (30-80meters, 90-100% max speed, 20-40 sprints/session) resulted in improvements on all speed and endurance tests, as well as an increase in the proportion of type II fibers, increased phosphorylase, and a decrease in citrate synthase, but no significant change in myokinase or phosphofructokinase (73). Crewther et al. demonstrated that 40 seconds of sprint cycling before a workout (4-week program), with the intent of affecting resting testosterone and cortisol levels, had no effect on strength or power; however, resting levels of testosterone and cortisol did correlate with individual improvements in strength and power (102). An earlier study by Crewther et al. demonstrated that lower extremity cycle sprints, but not upper extremity cycle sprints, increased testosterone while cortisol levels remained unchanged. Lower body and upper body 1RM strength increased following cycle sprints, perhaps due to the increase in circulating testosterone; however, there was no effect on peak power during bench press throws or squat jumps (103). Häkkinen et al. demonstrated that 7 females participating in a 16-week power training program exhibited no statistically significant changes in mean concentrations of serum testosterone, free testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone, cortisol, progesterone, estradiol, or sex hormone-binding globulin. However, individual levels of both mean total and free testosterone correlated significantly with improvements in early force development and total force production in the force-time curve (104). Peltonen et al. compared responders and non-responders following 10 weeks of maximum strength training followed by 10 weeks of power training, demonstrating that responders had higher levels of free testosterone; despite testosterone levels decreasing slightly during the maximum strength phase in the responder group (105). Last, Elliot et al. compared adaptations following 8 weeks of progressive strength training and progressive power training to controls (no training), demonstrating similar results for both strength and power trained groups including increased 1-RM squat strength, hypertrophy of type I, IIa, and IIb fibers, type IIb fibers decreased as a percentage, increased mTOR and RICTOR mRNA expression, 4EBP‐1 decreased after training, calcineurin levels did not change after training while calcipressin increased, RAPTOR increased for both groups but to a greater extent after strength training. This study demonstrated both training programs resulted in similar performance improvements; however, there was a trend toward greater hypertrophy‐related gene expression and muscle fiber hypertrophy for the strength group (106). Again, these studies seem to imply that increases in enzymes (phosphorylase, decreases in citrate synthase) are likely following training; however, the effect of power training and hormone levels is less clear (strength training resulting in more hypertrophy-related gene expression). Resting or mean levels of testosterone may have an effect on the amount of improvement made during training.

 Muscle Architecture, Hormones, and Enzymes

To date, there is little, if any evidence, that a training type or training volume can be used to optimize muscle architecture, hormones, or enzymes with the intent of improving power performance.

Resting testosterone levels may be predictive of the amount of improvements made and/or performance of elite athletes who have participated in long-term training programs; but again, this does not seem to be strongly correlated with a particular type of training.

Hormones, Enzymes and Power

General Correlation Between Strength and Power

Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between maximum strength and power. Wisloff et al. demonstrated a strong correlation between 1-RM half-squat strength and 30m sprint times, 10M shuttle run times, and vertical jump height (107). Sleivert et al. demonstrated a correlation between 5m time during a sprint test and peak power development during jump squats, split squats, and back squats between 30 - 70% 1-RM (108). Several studies have compared the performance of weaker and stronger athletes. Mcbride et al. demonstrated individuals who could 1-RM squat (to 70° knee flexion) with 2.1 times body weight were significantly faster than individuals who could squat 1.9 times bodyweight for 10m and 40m sprint times, but not 5 meter sprint times (109). Thomas et al. demonstrated higher peak power, RFD, and instantaneous force during MVIC were correlated with peak force, but not peak height during vertical jump; however, stronger athletes did jump higher than weaker athletes (110). Two additional studies demonstrate that stronger athletes were less affected by the addition of external load. Stone et al. demonstrated a correlation between individuals with the largest relative 1RM squat and their ability to produce peak power with larger loads during a loaded jump; weaker individuals produced peak power at approximately 10% 1RM, whereas stronger individuals produced peak power at 40% 1RM (111). Further, Kraska et al. demonstrated that stronger athletes jump higher than weak athletes, and jump height decreases less with added load (112). These studies demonstrate a moderate correlation between increased strength and increased RFD; however, further studies demonstrate stronger relationships when additional factors are considered. Increased strength is correlated with the ability to maintain RFD at higher loads.

Studies investigating various groups of athletes and their capacity to produce power suggest adaptations are specific to sport, training demands, and experience. Mcbride et al. demonstrated that powerlifters, Olympic lifters, and sprinters exhibit performance characteristics that match their sport. All groups performed better on all tests than controls; however, sprinters performed better than all groups on the vertical jump test, Olympic lifters performed better than powerlifters on vertical jump and jump squat tests, and powerlifters performed better on 1-RM squat tests than other groups (113). Ugrinowitsch et al. demonstrated that the vertical jump heights of power/track athletes were higher than the vertical jump heights of body-builders or recreationally active individuals, 1-RM was correlated with jump height in power athletes and body-builders but not active individuals, and power athlete jump heights were correlated with counter-movement excursion and not RFD (114). Carlock et al. demonstrated that vertical jump performance was correlated with a weightlifter's ability and experience, suggesting that both chosen sport and experience play a role in developing power (115). In summary, max strength is correlated with power; however, peak power is highest in more experienced athletes and athletes participating in power sports.

Although a moderate correlation between certain measures of max strength and power exists, further studies demonstrate that stronger correlations exist when additional factors are considered. Nuzzo et al. demonstrated that relative (to body weight) squat and clean strength, but not absolute strength, were correlated with CMJ performance (116). Blackburn et al. demonstrated that closed kinetic chain strength (squat) was correlated with vertical jump and long jump performance, but open kinetic chain strength (leg extension) was minimally correlated (117). Miyaguchi et al. demonstrated that maximal upper body power output was correlated with 1-RM bench press, and only minimally correlated with 1-RM maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) (118). Further, Duchateau et al. compared 3 months of moderate, isometric, or dynamic voluntary strength training. Findings demonstrate that isometric exercises increased peak force and peak power when using higher loads; however, only dynamic contractions had a significant impact on RFD and movement velocity (119). These studies demonstrate that the correlation between high velocity activity and strength is higher when strength is measured relative to bodyweight, is dynamic, and closed-chain.

Further studies demonstrate that the velocity of the movement used to measure strength has an influence on the strength of the correlation between strength and power. Baker et al. demonstrated a significant correlation between 3-RM strength and max power; however, a high level of variability exists, especially for the upper body, suggesting specific measures may be necessary. This study, also demonstrated that the clean was more correlated with lower body power than a squat (120). Mayhew et al. compared 1-RM bench press, bench press throw peak power, and seated shot put before and after weight training 2x's/week for 12 weeks. Training increased 1-RM and bench press power at all loads, with peak power demonstrated at 40 - 50% 1RM; however, insignificant improvements in the seated shot-put were noted (121). Thomas et al. demonstrated higher peak power, RFD, and instantaneous force during MVIC were correlated with peak force, but not peak height during the vertical jump (110). Haff et al. demonstrated that isometric peak force correlated with peak force; and isometric RFD was correlated with peak force and peak RFD during power cleans at 80, 90, and 100% 1RM (122). Cronin et al. demonstrated that squat jumps and CMJ, but not maximal strength, were strongly correlated with first-step quickness, acceleration, or max speed at 30 meters (123). Sheppard et al. demonstrated that force-velocity characteristics of the leg extensors in well-trained jumping athletes were a reliable indicator of performance (peak power, relative peak power, and peak force), and that an intensive 12-week training program may result in significant improvements in performance and improve test results (124). These studies imply that the relationship between strength and power is weak when the strength measure does not sufficiently approximate the power movement pattern. Further, higher velocity lifts (e.g. Olympic Lifts) are more strongly correlated with power than slower lifts.

The plyometric medicine ball chest pass, an upper body power exercise

The relationship between max strength and the ability to change directions has been investigated in various athletic populations. Spiteri et al. demonstrated that stronger individuals exhibited a significantly faster stride velocity after a 45° change of direction when compared to weaker athletes (125). Spiteri et al. demonstrated that in a group of female basketball, the fastest change of direction and agility test scores were correlated with more isometric and eccentric strength, but not concentric strength (126). Hori et al. divided semiprofessional Australian Rules football players into top and bottom half groups based on their relative 1-RM hang power clean strength, demonstrating a correlation between the top half group and higher maximum strength, power, jumping, and sprinting. However, there was no significant difference between groups in 5-5 change of direction time (127). Freitas et al. demonstrated that stronger and more powerful rugby players were significantly faster during straight trajectory sprint testing but relatively slower at changing directions (128). Young et al. demonstrated that depth jump height and sprint acceleration were correlated with the change of direction and agility, but 3RM max half-squat strength was not for Australian rules football players (129). Keiner et al. compared strength training and soccer practice to soccer practice alone in young athletes over a 2-year period, demonstrating the addition of strength training had a significant effect on the change of direction speed (130). However, Prieske et al. compared 6 weeks of either resisted sprints or traditional power training, demonstrating that both programs resulted in similar improvements in 20m sprints, but did not improve change-of-direction speed, jump height, or balance performance (131). This research suggests that long-term adaptations to strength training in conjunction with sports training may improve change of direction speed; however, this relationship is likely limited to the degree of the change in direction, and it seems likely that there is a limit to the amount of strength can improve change of direction speed.

Relationship Between Strength and Power

Strength Training for Power

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a single-leg box jump

Power Training for Power

Comparing Power Training and Strength Training for Improving Power

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a power pushup exercise

Combining Strength and Power Training for Improving Power

Training Modalities

Intensity (Load)

Volume (Repetition Range)

Olympic lifts are often recommended to athletes for power development, but the research does not support this recommendation. A randomized control trial (RCT) by Helland et al. compared the performance of 39 athletes (ice hockey, volleyball, and badminton), randomized into three training groups, performing 8 weeks (2-3x/week) of either Olympic lifting (clean and snatch), 2-leg and 1-leg squats using free weights, or 2-leg and 1-leg squats using an isotonic power training machine with an augmented eccentric load. The results demonstrate that the Olympic lifting group exhibited less improvement on all tests, including CMJ, squat jump (SJ), drop jump (DJ), loaded CMJ (10–80 kg), and 30-m sprint time. Both the free weight and machine training groups exhibited significant improvements on all tests, with the isotonic power training machine resulting in the largest improvements on some tests (174). One factor contributing to the reduction in improvements may be related to "follow through." Newton et al. demonstrated that during the concentric phase of a bench press throw with 45% 1-RM, average EMG was higher for 

, triceps brachii, and biceps brachii, when compared to conventional bench press done with the quickest possible concentric contraction at all loads (202). Consider how this study compares to a study by Cronin. et al., which determined that load lifted during a clean was most correlated with greater peak accelerations (38.5% - mean across loads), greater initial force and peak forces (14.1% - mean across loads), 

and early termination of the concentric phase

 (203). These studies demonstrate that Olympic lifts are likely less effective than other forms of training for improving power performance for most athletes, perhaps due to the deceleration at the "top" of the movement. Based on the conceptual framework for improving power implied by the body of research, and observations of athletic team training, other factors that are likely to contribute to the reduced effectiveness of Olympic lifts include loads too heavy to achieve maximal velocity, low transference due to kinematics that do not match the force/velocity curve for most sporting activity (e.g. sprinting/jumping), the amount of time it takes to learn these techniques due to the complexity of the movement, and the relatively high potential for injury. Additional research investigating these factors, as well as additional comparative studies including various Olympic lifts and commonly used power exercises, are recommended. Note, training for individuals competing in sports that require Olympic lifting should include Olympic lifts, as this is the goal of the athlete.

An example of the snatch exercise used in olympic weighlifting

Why Not Olympic Lifts

Lower Body Progressions

Upper Body Progressions

Power Training Progressions

 The combination of strength and power training is likely more beneficial than either strength or power training alone.

 As much load as can be moved with maximal velocity

3 - 10 (reps the number of repetitions that can be performed at maximum velocity)

(General evidence-based exercise progressions)

Practical Application Summary

Demura, S., & Yamaji, S. (2006). Comparison between muscle power outputs exerted by concentric and eccentric contractions. 

Cormie, P., McBride, J. M., & McCaulley, G. O. (2009). Power-time, force-time, and velocity-time curve analysis of the countermovement jump: impact of training. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(1), 177-186.

De Luca CJ, LeFever RS, McCue MP, Xenakis AP (1982). Behaviour of human motor units in different muscles during linearly varying contractions. J Physiol. 329:113–128

Kukulka CG, Clamann HP (1981) Comparison of the recruitment and discharge properties of motor units in human brachial biceps and adductor pollicis during isometric contractions. Brain Res 219:45–55.

Rate coding at different contraction velocities

Desmedt JE, Godaux E. Ballistic contractions in fast or slow human muscles: discharge patterns of single motor units. J Physiol 1978; 285: 185–96

Desmedt, J. E., & Godaux, E. (1977). Ballistic contractions in man: characteristic recruitment pattern of single motor units of the tibialis anterior muscle. 

Bawa, P., & Calancie, B. (1983). Repetitive doublets in human flexor carpi radialis muscle. The Journal of Physiology, 339(1), 123-132.

Christie A, Kamen G. (2006). Doublet discharges in motoneurons of young and older adults. 

Klass M, Baudry S, Duchateau J (2008) Age-related decline in rate of torque development is accompanied by lower maximal motor unit discharge frequency during fast contractions. J Appl Physiol (1985) 104:739–746

Van Cutsem, M., Duchateau, J., & Hainaut, K. (1998). Changes in single motor unit behaviour contribute to the increase in contraction speed after dynamic training in humans. The Journal of physiology, 513(1), 295-305.

Hakkinen, K., Komi, P. V., & Alen, M. (1985). Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force-and relaxation-time, elelectromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 125(4), 587-600.

Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kyrolainen H, Cheng S, Kim DH, Komi PV. (1990). Neuromuscular adaptations and serum hormones in females during prolonged power training. Int. J. Sports Med. 11:91–98.

Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E. B., Andersen, J. L., Magnusson, P., & Dyhre-Poulsen, P. (2002). Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. Journal of applied physiology, 93(4), 1318-1326.

Tillin, N. A., Jimenez-Reyes, P., Pain, M. T., & Folland, J. P. (2010). Neuromuscular performance of explosive power athletes versus untrained individuals. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 42(4), 781-790.

Folland JP, Williams AG. (2007). The adaptations to strength training: morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength. Sports Med. 37(2): 145-168.

Motor Unit Recruitment Threshold and Ca2+ Sensitivity

Z'Graggen, W. J., Trautmann, J. P., & Bostock, H. (2016). Force training induces changes in human muscle membrane properties. Muscle & nerve, 54(1), 144-146.

Ørtenblad, N., Lunde, P. K., Levin, K., Andersen, J. L., & Pedersen, P. K. (2000). Enhanced sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ release following intermittent sprint training. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 279(1), R152-R160.

Li, J. L., Wang, X. N., Fraser, S. F., Carey, M. F., Wrigley, T. V., & McKenna, M. J. (2002). Effects of fatigue and training on sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ regulation in human skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology, 92(3), 912-922.

Widrick, J. J., Stelzer, J. E., Shoepe, T. C., & Garner, D. P. (2002). Functional properties of human muscle fibers after short-term resistance exercise training. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 283(2), R408-R416.

LYNCH, G.S., McKENNA, M.J. and WILLIAMS, D.A. (1994), Sprint‐training effects on some contractile properties of single skinned human muscle fibres. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 152: 295-306.

Carpentier, A., Duchateau, J., & Hainaut, K. (1996). Velocity-dependent muscle strategy during plantarflexion in humans. Journal of electromyography and kinesiology, 6(4), 225-233.

Arai, A., Ishikawa, M., & Ito, A. (2013). Agonist–antagonist muscle activation during drop jumps. 

Gollhofer, A., & Kyröläinen, H. (1991). Neuromuscular control of the human leg extensor muscles in jump exercises under various stretch-load conditions. 

Mokhtarzadeh, H., Yeow, C. H., Goh, J. C. H., Oetomo, D., Ewing, K., & Lee, P. V. S. (2017). Antagonist muscle co-contraction during a double-leg landing maneuver at two heights. 

Computer methods in biomechanics and biomedical engineering

Bazzucchi, I., Riccio, M., Felici, F. (2008). Tennis players show a lower coactivation of the elbow antagonist muscles during isokinetic exercises. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 18(5), 752-759.

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Fiber Types Proportions and Rate of Force Development

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Power (High-velocity) Training: Introduction

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