Introduction

Research Corner: Training Guidelines

Selected Upper Body Power Training Research

Selected Total Body Exercise Research

Power Exercise Selection and Form

Upper Body Power Exercises and Total Body Power Exercises

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Power (High-velocity) Training: Upper and Total Body Exercises

This course discusses variations, <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a>, and <a id="exercise-regression" data-tip="1178" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-regression" class="glossary">regressions</a> of upper-body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises and total-body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises. This includes exercises like medicine ball ballistic shoulder press for shoulder muscles, <a id="plyometric" data-tip="1295" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/plyometric" class="glossary">plyometric</a> push-ups for chest muscles, ballistic chop exercise back and core muscles; as well as, ballistic squat-to-row sled pull, and <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> <a id="kinetic-chain-2" data-tip="1544" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinetic-chain-2" class="glossary">kinetic chain</a> throw for integrating <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> groups. It is essential for athletes to move beyond upper body strength training (e.g. shoulder press), arm workouts (e.g. biceps preacher curls), and upper body workouts designed for building <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> mass (e.g. pull-ups, barbell row, barbell bench press, incline dumbbell press exercise), and incorporate workouts and exercises specifically designed to increase speed. This course includes detailed directions for cueing the appropriate starting position, the ideal scapula position (e.g. shoulder blade), the ideal shoulder range of motion, ideal foot placement (e.g. shoulder width, staggered stance, etc.), ideal weight and resistance for improving velocity, etc.
There is a sample upper body workout below.
Additionally, this course includes a systematic research review and resulting <a id="evidence-based-practice" data-tip="1538" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/evidence-based-practice" class="glossary">evidence-based</a> recommendations for optimizing upper body <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> and total body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises. Here is a very brief summary of those recommendations:
<ul>
 <li>Max Velocity: Load should be limited to what can be moved with max velocity.</li>
 <li>Eccentric Load: <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> exercise must include a quick eccentric contraction. Increasing the eccentric demand of an exercise is recommended when possible for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> exercises (e.g. higher depth jump).</li>
 <li>Amortization phase: NEVER purposefully allow weights to touch the floor, bounce off racks, or pause during this phase of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise (and, it is also not recommended during strength training for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> athletes). A goal of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training should be to shorten the <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> as much as possible.</li>
 <li>Concentric Load: Ensure that any increase in load of a <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise, increases the load during the earliest part of the concentric contraction. Increasing load at the end of a contraction with apparatus like bands and chains may negatively alter the force/velocity curve of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise.</li>
 <li>Quick Intent: Research has demonstrated that repeated attempts with the intent to produce force quickly may be more important to developing force than the actual shortening and lengthening of the musculotendinous unit.</li>
 <li>Follow Through: Follow through (letting go, leaving the ground, etc.) increases EMG activity, peak and average force, peak and average velocity, congruence with the force/velocity curve, and kinematics, and is likely to result in larger improvements from training.</li>
 <li>Soft Landing/Catching: Softer landing/catching reduces reaction forces, by distributing force over a longer amount of time, and a larger range of motion. This may decrease the wear and tear inherent in high-intensity training.</li>
 <li>Olympic Lifts: Olympic lifts are likely less effective than high velocity/ballistic exercise, and potentially less effective than max strength exercise, for improving <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> performance for most athletes.&#xA0;</li>
</ul>
Further, this course is pre-approved for credits toward the Certified Personal Trainer (CPT) Certification, and pre-approved for continuing education credits for movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists etc.). We hope this course inspires the inclusion of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training into programs for fitness, performance, and physical rehabilitation of the shoulder, elbow, scapula, and core. For example, total body work-outs for fitness enthusiasts (e.g. a series of upper body and whole body exercises), upper body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training for overhead athletes (e.g. med ball drills), or improving reactivity and function in the elderly population who may want a strong upper body (e.g. progressing to single leg <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> with <a id="stability" data-tip="1191" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">stability</a> ball pass).&#xA0;&#xA0;
<h3>Additional Progression Courses:</h3>
<h4>Strength Progressions</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/chestpushing-movements">Chest Exercise and Pushing Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/back-pulling-movement-patterns">Back Exercise and Pulling Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/shoulderoverhead-pressing-patterns">Shoulder Exercise and Pressing Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-bodytriple-extension-movements">Leg Exercise and Triple Extension Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deadlift-progression">Deadlift Exercise Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/stability-progression-for-integrated-exercise">Total Body Exercise and </a><a id="integration" data-tip="1473" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">Integrated</a> Progressions</li>
</ul>
<h4>Core Progressions</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/transverse-abdominis-activation-quadrupeds-progressions">Quadruped and Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/plank-progression">Plank and Side Plank Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/bridge-progression">Glute Bridge and Progressions</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/chop-pattern-progressions">Wood Chop Exercise Progressions</a></li>
</ul>
<h4>Power Progressions</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/power-training-upper-and-total-body">Power Training: Upper Body and Total Body Exercise</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/power-training-lower-body-exercises">Power Training: Lower Body Exercise</a></li>
</ul>
<h2>Sample Progression: Exercise Selections</h2>
<ul>
 <li>Shoulders/Pressing:
 <ul>
 <li>Power Overhead Medicine Ball Press</li>
 <li>Total Body: <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">Posterior</a> <a id="kinetic-chain-2" data-tip="1544" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinetic-chain-2" class="glossary">Kinetic Chain</a> Throw</li>
 <li>Total Body: Tire Flip</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Chest/Pushing:
 <ul>
 <li>Medicine Ball Chest Pass</li>
 <li>Ballistic/Plyometric Push-up</li>
 <li>Total Body: Sled Push</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Back/Pulling:
 <ul>
 <li>Power Chop/Smash</li>
 <li>Power Row with Sled</li>
 <li>Power Rope Row with Sled</li>
 <li>Total Body: <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> Squat to Row with Sled</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h2>Sample Routine</h2>
<h3>Goal: Upper Body Max Strength/Power</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Load: (Heavy &gt; 85% of 1-RM) (Light &lt; 30% of 1-RM</li>
 <li>Reps/set: (1-5)(3-10)</li>
 <li>Sets/exercise (circuits): 2-6 circuits</li>
 <li>Rest between exercises: 60 - 90 seconds (note, exercise performed in circuit)</li>
 <li>Post-activation <a id="post-activation-potentiation" data-tip="1393" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/post-activation-potentiation" class="glossary">Potentiation</a> Supersets &amp; Circuit: at least 3 minutes between max strength and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise for the same <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> group</li>
 <li>Training Time: 30 &#x2013; 60 minutes (excluding warm-up).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Max Strength Circuit Routine:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Chest and Shoulder Total Body: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/tire-flips" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tire Flip</a></li>
 <li>Back Strength: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/pull-ups-and-progressions" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pull-up</a></li>
 <li>Chest Strength: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/bench-press-chest-press" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bench Press</a></li>
 <li>Back Power: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/power-chop-medicine-ball-smash">Med Ball Chop</a></li>
 <li>Chest Power: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/power-push-ups">Plyometric Push-up</a></li>
 <li>Active Rest (corrective/mobility not appropriate): <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/videos/single-leg-alternating-horizontal-abduction-with-external-rotation" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg alternating horizontal abduction with band</a></li>
</ul>

Course Details: Upper Body Power Exercises and Total Body Power Exercises

For a comprehensive review of adaptations, training guidelines, and acute variables:
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/strength-training/exercise-physiology/introduction-power-training-high-velocity-training/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to </a><a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> (High-velocity) Training</li>
</ul>

Training Guidelines and Acute Variables:
<h3>Choosing Phases:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Strength Training: Moderate load strength training may be beneficial (especially in novice lifters); however, incorporating near maximal loads is likely ideal for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> development.</li>
 <li>Power Training: Power training is likely more beneficial than strength training for improving high-velocity tasks, especially for individuals with training experience.</li>
 <li>Combined Training: The combination of strength and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training is likely more beneficial than either strength or <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training alone; however, the amount of high-velocity activity already included in sport and/or practice must be considered.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Acute Variables:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Volume: 3 - 5 sets
 <ul>
 <li>Sufficient volume is necessary to ensure adaption; however, increasing volume beyond 3-5 high-quality sets per <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> group is unlikely to provide any additional benefit. Additional volume may actually result in a reduction in type IIx fiber proportion.
 <ul>
 <li>Training adaptations may be maintained with just 1 session per week.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Repetitions (reps): 3 - 10 reps, or the number of reps that can be performed at max velocity.
 <ul>
 <li>There is currently no research comparing rep ranges of high-velocity activities, but based on the most commonly used rep ranges in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training studies, 3-10 repetitions/set is likely a reasonable recommendation. A more <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> recommendation would be to limit reps to the number that can be performed at max velocity.</li>
 </ul>
 
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Loading:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Max Velocity: As much load as can be moved with max velocity.
 <ul>
 <li>Intensity/load is likely best determined by the ability to achieve maximum velocity. Bodyweight training is likely <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> for novice individuals; whereas, trained individuals may benefit from adding height to a depth jump (not to exceed 50-60cm), or adding external load (not to exceed 20-30% of 1RM).</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Eccentric Load: Always include a quick eccentric contraction. Increasing eccentric demand is appropriate for progressing <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise (e.g. higher depth jump).
 <ul>
 <li>Note, studies imply that improvements in concentric force production from an increase in eccentric load are limited to about 50cm depth jumps, and about 45% of 1-RM for upper body exercises in advanced athletes, and these limits would be much lower in novice individuals, recreational exercises, and athletes who have not reached peak levels of strength.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Amortization phase: NEVER purposefully allow weights to touch the floor, bounce off racks, or allow a pause during this phase of a <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise (and, it is also not recommended during strength training for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> athletes). A goal of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training should be to shorten the <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> as much as possible.
 <ul>
 <li>Overcoming the <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> requires the synchronization of the maximal impulse of <a id="motor-unit" data-tip="1303" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/motor-unit" class="glossary">motor unit</a> recruitment, neuromuscular coordination, and the synchronous shortening of the muscle/tendon complex. Allowing the floor or rack to impart force, or disrupt this complex sequence during training, is likely to reduce the transference of gains made from training to daily activity and sport.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Concentric Load: Ensure any <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progressions</a> that involve an increase in load do so during the earliest part of the concentric contraction. Increasing load at the end of a contraction with apparatus like bands and chains is not likely to have a positive impact on the force/velocity curve of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise.</li>
 <li>Quick Intent: Research has demonstrated that repeated attempts with the intent to produce force quickly may be more important to developing force than the actual shortening and lengthening of the musculotendinous unit.</li>
 <li>Follow Through: Following all the way through (letting go, leaving the ground, etc.) is likely to result in greater EMG activity, better kinematics, and larger improvements from training.</li>
 <li>Soft Landing/Catching: Softer landing/catching reduces reaction forces, largely by increasing the amount of joint motion (excursion), which may reduce the wear and tear inherent in high-intensity training.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Progressions:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Power <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1182" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">Progressions</a> based on Power = Force x Distance/Time:
 <ul>
 <li>Decrease Time: Decrease time to cover the same distance/height, or complete the same number of reps</li>
 <li>Increase Distance: Increase distance/height while maintaining speed and/or time</li>
 <li>Increase Force: Increase force by increasing load while maintaining speed and/or distance/height</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Evidence-based Exercise Progressions:
 <ul>
 <li>Upper Body
 <ul>
 <li>4 - 12 cm Box Drop Push-Up</li>
 <li>Clap Push-Up</li>
 <li>Unstable Environments</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Lower Body
 <ol>
 <li>Counter Movement Jump</li>
 <li>Box Jump</li>
 <li>Cone hop</li>
 <li>Single leg jump</li>
 <li>Depth jump</li>
 <li>Tuck jump</li>
 </ol>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>For a complete review of all relevant research please refer to: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/strength-training/exercise-physiology/introduction-power-training-high-velocity-training/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"></a></h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/strength-training/exercise-physiology/introduction-power-training-high-velocity-training/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to </a><a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> (High-velocity) Training</li>
</ul>

Research Corner

Unfortunately, there are a relatively small number of studies investigating upper body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise; however, the research available is congruent with the larger body of research investigating lower body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise. Miyaguchi et al. demonstrated that maximal upper body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> output was correlated with 1-RM bench press, and only minimally correlated with 1-RM maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) (1). Young et al. demonstrated that weaker athletes saw improvement in 1RM and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> output following heavy or ballistic bench press protocols; however, stronger athletes did not achieve the same increases in peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> from heavy bench press training and benefited more from the ballistic bench press (2). Newton et al. demonstrated that average and peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> output was significantly higher for stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) throws (throws that included quick eccentric pre-stretch), when compared to concentric only throw at all loads, with <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> output highest at 30 to 45% of 1-RM loads (3). Bevan et al. demonstrated that 0% of 1-RM for squat jumps and 30% of 1-RM for bench press throws resulted in the largest peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> output when compared to 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60% of predetermined 1-RM in a group of 47 professional, male, rugby players (4). And finally, Newton et al. demonstrated that during the concentric phase of a bench press throw with 45% 1-RM, average EMG was higher for <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/pectoralis-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pectoralis major</a>, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deltoids" target="_blank" rel="noopener">anterior deltoid</a>, triceps brachii, and biceps brachii, when compared to traditional bench press done explosively (5). These studies demonstrate that upper body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> is correlated with upper-body dynamic strength; however, stronger athletes are likely to benefit more from high-velocity activity. Further, upper body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise should include a high-velocity eccentric contraction, use relatively light loads and the concentric phase should involve &quot;letting go&quot;.
<h4>Progression</h4>
Only two studies were located ranking upper-body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises. Koch et al. demonstrated that force increased during <a id="plyometric" data-tip="1295" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/plyometric" class="glossary">plyometric</a> push-ups as box drop height increased from 4 - 12cm; however, clapping push-ups resulted in the highest loads and propulsion rates (6). Ignjatovic et al. compared eight weeks of bench press and squat training on stable and <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> surfaces, and demonstrated the largest increases in peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> were exhibited by the <a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">unstable</a> surface group (recreationally active subjects) (7). These studies may imply the following <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1184" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progression</a> for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> push-ups.
<ol>
 <li>4 - 12 cm Box Drop Push-Up</li>
 <li>Clap Push-Up</li>
 <li><a id="stability" data-tip="1194" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">Unstable</a> Environments</li>
</ol>
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649512074-powerpushup-1.jpg" title="A power pushup used to increase upper body power" alt="A client demonstrating a power pushup">

<h4>Load</h4>
If an increase in velocity is the goal, research implies that lighter loads are likely ideal for most total-body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises. Cormie et al. demonstrated that peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> was generated using no-load during a jump squat, 56% of 1-RM during a conventional squat, and 30 - 40% of 1-RM during a clean (8). Garhammer et al. used a force plate to compare athletes from various sports on snatch and weighted vertical jumps at 50, 80, and 90% 1-RM, demonstrating that generally as load increased maximal propulsion force decreased (9). Although studies are limited, these studies imply that loads of less than 50% of 1-RM, and perhaps lower than 30% of 1-RM are likely ideal for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> development, reinforcing the assertion that load should be limited to an athlete&apos;s ability to maintain maximal velocity.
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <h4>Why not Olympic Lifts?</h4>
 Olympic lifts are often recommended to athletes for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> development, but the research does not <a id="base-of-support" data-tip="1197" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/base-of-support" class="glossary">support</a> this recommendation. A randomized control <a id="randomized-control-trial" data-tip="1407" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/randomized-control-trial" class="glossary">trial</a> (RCT) by Helland et al. compared the performance of 39 athletes (ice hockey, volleyball, and badminton), randomized into three training groups, performing 8 weeks (2-3x/week) of either Olympic lifting (clean and snatch), 2-leg and 1-leg squats using free weights, or 2-leg and 1-leg squats using an isotonic <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training machine with an augmented eccentric load. The results demonstrate that the Olympic lifting group exhibited less improvement on all tests, including CMJ, squat jump (SJ), drop jump (DJ), loaded CMJ (10&#x2013;80 kg), and 30-m sprint time. Both the free weight and machine training groups exhibited significant improvements on all tests, with the isotonic <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training machine resulting in the largest improvements on some tests (10). One factor contributing to the reduction in improvements may be related to &quot;follow through.&quot; Newton et al. demonstrated that during the concentric phase of a bench press throw with 45% 1-RM, average EMG was higher for <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/pectoralis-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pectoralis major</a>, <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/deltoids" target="_blank" rel="noopener">anterior deltoid</a>, triceps brachii, and biceps brachii when compared to conventional bench press done with the quickest possible concentric contraction at all loads (5). Consider how this study compares to a study by Cronin. et al., which determined that load lifted during a clean was most correlated with greater peak accelerations (38.5% - mean across loads), greater initial force and peak forces (14.1% - mean across loads), and early termination of the concentric phase (11). These studies demonstrate that Olympic lifts are likely less effective than other forms of training for improving <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> performance for most athletes, perhaps due to the deceleration at the &quot;top&quot; of the movement. Based on the conceptual framework for improving <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> implied by the body of research, and observations of athletic team training, other factors that are likely to contribute to the reduced effectiveness of Olympic lifts include loads too heavy to achieve maximal velocity, low transference due to kinematics that do not match the force/velocity curve for most sporting activity (e.g. sprinting/jumping), the amount of time it takes to learn these techniques due to the complexity of the movement, and the relatively high potential for injury. Additional research investigating these factors, as well as additional comparative studies including various Olympic lifts and commonly used <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises, are recommended. Note, training for individuals competing in sports that require Olympic lifting should include Olympic lifts, as this is the goal of the athlete.
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649512190-olympic-lift.jpg" title="An athlete performing the snatch exercise, an Olympic lift" alt="An example of an Olympic lift">

<ul>
 <li>Shoulders/Pressing:
 <ul>
 <li>Power Overhead Medicine Ball Press</li>
 <li>Total Body: <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">Posterior</a> <a id="kinetic-chain-2" data-tip="1544" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinetic-chain-2" class="glossary">Kinetic Chain</a> Throw</li>
 <li>Total Body: Tire Flip</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Chest/Pushing:
 <ul>
 <li>Medicine Ball Chest Pass</li>
 <li>Ballistic/Plyometric Push-up</li>
 <li>Total Body: Sled Push</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Back/Pulling:
 <ul>
 <li>Power Chop/Smash</li>
 <li>Power Row with Sled</li>
 <li>Power Rope Row with Sled</li>
 <li>Total Body: <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> Squat to Row with Sled</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Form Cues:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Alignment
 <ul>
 <li>Feet parallel (2nd toe pointing forward)</li>
 <li>Feet, knees, and hips in alignment and hip-width</li>
 <li>Pelvis neutral (no <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> pelvic tilt or asymmetrical weight shift)</li>
 <li>Neural Spine (<a id="drawing-in" data-tip="1580" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/drawing-in" class="glossary">drawing-in</a> maneuver or bracing if necessary)</li>
 <li>Neutral cervical spine (Chin-tucked &amp; head back)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Performance Cues
 <ul>
 <li>Cue &quot;faster&quot;, not &quot;harder&quot;</li>
 <li>Shortest &quot;amortization phase&quot; possible</li>
 <li>Follow-through</li>
 <li>Arms and legs extended but soft, ready to accept the ground or external resistance</li>
 <li>Soft Catches/Landings</li>
 <li>Unlike strength training, every <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise is at least partially total body. It is inappropriate to try and maintain rigidity at any joint.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<table>
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <h4>Special Note on Form:</h4>
 <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">Form</a> is a controversial topic in the fields of physical medicine, health, and human performance. Unfortunately, the controversy has not resulted in a large amount of direct evidence; that is, research that specifically compares <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">Form</a> cues and their effect on the improvements made from training and rehabilitation programs. One study by Schilling et al. demonstrated that there was no correlation between foot motion, placement (forward, neutral, back, asymmetrical), and lifting performance during the 1998 U.S.A. Weightlifting Collegiate National Championships (12). This likely implies that foot placement varied between individual competitors, and was not a significant factor in performance. However, rather than assuming that <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">Form</a> is not a significant factor for consideration, it may be ideal to consider <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">Form</a> from the perspective of long-term injury prevention. <a id="posture" data-tip="1660" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">Form</a> cues in this course have been developed to reduce the likelihood of alignment issues that have been correlated with dysfunction (e.g. knee valgus/knees bow out). For more research on the correlation between alignment, dysfunction, and pain, refer to the courses under the category &quot;Postural Dysfunction/Movement Impairment&quot;, and articles such as <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo-Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction</a>.
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
<img title="Sprints are a great example of explosive (power) exercise" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649306258-sprinters-glutes-1.jpeg" alt="Sprinters running in a race">

Videos

Shoulder Power Progressions

Power Overhead Press (Shoulders)

Posterior Kinetic Chain Throw (Total Body with Shoulders)

<ul>
 <li style="list-style-type: none;"></li>
</ul>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/82877146" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe>
<h4>Tire Flip (Total Body with Shoulders):</h4>
<ol>
 <li>Maintain proper alignment with &quot;joints soft&quot;.</li>
 <li>Quickly descend into a squat position. This initial movement is the quick eccentric load.</li>
 <li>Grab the tire firmly with an &quot;underhand&quot; grip in the bottom position.</li>
 <li>Try to reduce the <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> (bottom position) as much as possible, snapping from the eccentric phase to the concentric phase as quickly as possible.
 <ul>
 <li>Admittedly, this takes a lot of practice, and most individuals are likely better off starting in the bottom position, with hands securely gripping the tire, and then attempting to bounce with the little range of motion left to add some &quot;eccentric stretch&quot;.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Thrust the pelvis forward, body erect, and flex the arms as quickly as possible, flipping the tire up so the hands may be turned over, and then immediately push the tire over as if doing a chest pass with a step.</li>
</ol>
<ul>
 <li>Progressions:
 <ul>
 <li>Weight of tire (remember, max velocity must be maintained)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>

Tire Flip (Total Body with Shoulders)

Chest Power Progressions

Medicine Ball Chest Pass

Power Push-up

Sled Push (Chest)

Back Power Progressions

Medicine Ball Slam/Chop

Power Row Sled Pull

Power Row Sled Pull Progressions

Squat to Row Sled Pull Power

<ol>
 <li>Miyaguchi, K., &amp; Demura, S. (2008). Relationships between stretch-shortening cycle performance and maximum muscle strength. The Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 22(1), 19-24.</li>
 <li>Young, K. R., Gabbett, T. J., Haff, G. G., Newton, R. U., Watts, D. G., &amp; Sheppard, J. M. (2013). The effect of initial strength levels on the training response to heavy resistance training and ballistic training on upper body pressing strength.</li>
 <li>Newton, R. U., Murphy, A. J., Humphries, B. J., Wilson, G. J., Kraemer, W. J., &amp; H&auml;kkinen, K. (1997). Influence of load and stretch shortening cycle on the kinematics, kinetics and muscle activation that occurs during explosive upper-body movements. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 75(4), 333-342.</li>
 <li>Bevan, H. R., Bunce, P. J., Owen, N. J., Bennett, M. A., Cook, C. J., Cunningham, D. J., &hellip; &amp; Kilduff, L. P. (2010). Optimal loading for the development of peak power output in professional rugby players. The Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 24(1), 43-47.</li>
 <li>Newton, R. U., Kraemer, W. J., H&auml;kkinen, K., Humphries, B. J., &amp; Murphy, A. J. (1996). Kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activation during explosive upper body movements. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 12(1), 31-43.</li>
 <li>Koch, J., Riemann, B.L. and Davies, J. (2012). Ground reaction force patterns in plyometric push-ups. Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research, 2220-2227</li>
 <li>Ignjatovic, A. M., Radovanovic, D. S., &amp; Kocić, J. (2019). Effects of eight weeks of bench press and squat power training on stable and unstable surfaces on 1RM and peak power in different testing conditions. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 27(3), 203-212.</li>
 <li>Cormie, P., McBride, J. M., &amp; McCaulley, G. O. (2008). Power-time, force-time, and velocity-time curve analysis during the jump squat: impact of load. Journal of applied biomechanics, 24(2), 112-120.</li>
 <li>Garhammer, J., &amp; Gregor, R. (1992). Propulsion forces as a function of intensity for weightlifting and vertical jumping. J Appl Sport Sci Res, 6(3), 129-34.</li>
 <li>Helland, C., Hole, E., Iversen, E., Olsson, M. C., Seynnes, O. R., Solberg, P. A., &amp; Paulsen, G. (2017). Training strategies to improve muscle power: is Olympic-style weightlifting relevant?.</li>
 <li>Cronin, J., McNair, P. J., &amp; Marshall, R. N. (2001). Developing explosive power: A comparison of technique and training. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 4(1), 59-70.</li>
 <li>Schilling, B. K., Stone, M. H., O'Bryant, H. S., Fry, A. C., Coglianese, R. H., &amp; Pierce, K. C. (2002). Snatch technique of collegiate national level weightlifters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 16(4), 551-555.</li>
</ol>

Bibliography

© Brent Brookbush 2020
Questions, comments and criticisms welcomed and encouraged.

Copyright

A-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks darker under a microscope.  This area of the cell is darker due to parallel arrangement of thicker filaments (myosin) and overlap with the thinner filaments (actin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the A-band is where actin and myosin interact.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Accuracy - the proportion of individuals correctly identified by the test results.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, a special test with perfect accuracy would imply a test has 100% specificity, 100% sensitivity, 100% positive predictive value and 100% negative predictive values.</li>
</ul>

Action Potential - A rapid change in voltage, resulting in a wave of excitation, that may result in stimulation of a nerve or muscle cell.
<ul>
 	<li>In order for an action potential to be initiated, the resting membrane voltage must exceed the excitation threshold, which then results in a cascade of depolarization and the "wave of excitation." Any stimulus below that threshold will not result in an action potential, and a stimulus greater than the threshold will not increase a single action potential, but may result in additional action potentials.  In this way, the action potential functions more like an on/off switch (all or none), and less like a dimmer switch.</li>
</ul>

A single-joint movement pattern (most often) designed to load a specific under-active muscle(s), while minimizing the contribution of over-active synergists via specific cues/joint motions.
<ul>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises are performed with the intent of addressing a muscle exhibiting a reduction in activity (tone) as a result of, or contributing to postural dysfunction.</li>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises cannot be multi-joint movement patterns due to relative flexibility, altered reciprocal inhibition, and synergistic dominance resulting in compensation patterns.</li>
</ul>
Example, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/activation/gluteus-medius-activation-progression/" target="_blank">gluteus medius activation</a> involves resisted hip abduction while minimizing the contribution of the TFL via hip extension.

Active stretching is a term used to describe a stretch that involves an active contraction of opposing musculature to lengthen a muscle to its end range. Generally these stretches are held for 2-5 seconds and repeated for 8-15 repetitions.

Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing (initiating and accelerating) the decomposition of ATP to ADP.
<ul>
 	<li>This dephosphorylation (breakdown) reaction releases energy for processes like muscular contraction.</li>
</ul>

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The molecule that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule, providing most of the energy associated with muscular contraction and human movement. ATP is composed of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three molecules of inorganic phosphates.
<ul>
 	<li>Energy is provided when hydrolysis results in the cleaving of a phophate group; resulting in adenosine diphosphate, an inorganigic phosphate group, and energy.</li>
</ul>

Algometry - measuring the amount of pressure to result in sensitivity or pain, using an algometer.
<ul>
 	<li>Generally, research uses algometry to establish a minimum pain pressure threshold (PPT), in which a lower PPT implies more sensitivity and pain, and a higher PPT implies less sensitivity and pain. PPT is a common outcome measure in trigger point research.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-140177" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg" alt="Image of an Algometer" width="500" height="333" /></a>

All-or-none principle - a nerve or muscle cell's response to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential (threshold of an action potential), the nerve or muscle fiber will respond completely; otherwise, there is no response.

Example, when a motor unit in the biceps brachii is stimulated it contracts the same way whether a 10 lb or 50 lb dumbbell is lifted.  It is actually the number of muscle cells and the size of the motor unit that determines force output.

&nbsp;

The transition period between eccentric load and concentric contraction during a repetition of an exercise.  This term is most often used in reference to power/plyometric exercises, in which a shorter amortization phase is believed to be beneficial.  The shorter amortization phase may better use the stored energy from the elastic deformation of connective tissue and enhance synchronization of myotatic (stretch) reflex with maximum voluntary contraction.

Example, the athlete was cued to spend as little time as possible in the bottom of their squat stance (the amortization phase) during a set of box jumps.

Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.

That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.

Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.

An anatomical direction; toward the front

Example, the face is on the anterior aspect of the head

Appendicular Skeleton - referring to the bones the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the bones that support them. This includes the pelvis, clavicle and scapula. There are approximately 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Appendicular, as in appendage, "that which is appended to something as a proper part," 1640s, from <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/append?ref=etymonline_crossreference">append</a> + <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/-age?ref=etymonline_crossreference">-age</a>. - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/appendage" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Appendicular skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/axial-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">axial skeleton</a>".

A reflexive decrease in muscle activity due to joint dyskinesis.
For example, a reduction in deep cervical flexor activity as a result of cervical spine dyskinesis.

Arthrokinematic Motion - Small amplitude motions between bone surfaces at a joint.  The arthrokinematic motions are roll, glide (slide or translation), spin, compression and distraction (traction). Arthrokinematic motions accompany osteokinematic motions to maintain joint congruence.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, arthrokinematic motion of the talus includes posterior glide on the tibia during ankle dorsiflexion.</li>
</ul>
Synonyms include: arthrokinematics, passive accessory motion, joint play and component motion

&nbsp;

Assessment - is the act of assessing, i.e. determining the importance, size, or value of -

In most cases, the results of an assessment are compared to normative data. If the individual exhibits values that are within normal parameters, it may be assumed that the aspect of health or motion assessed is not contributing to the patient's complaint, symptoms or movement impairment. If the results fall outside of normal parameters, it may indicate that the aspect of health or motion assessed is contributing to, or being affected by the patient/client's complaint, symptoms, or movement impairment. In some cases, the results of an assessment are compared to an "ideal model." In this case, deviations from the ideal are noted as potential issues. For example, deviations noted in the <a title="Introduction to the Overhead Squat Assessment" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/online-courses/articles/assessment/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment/" target="_blank">Overhead Squat Assessment</a> are compared to an "ideal model" of posture and motion.

Assessments used by human movement professionals can be divided into three broad categories:
<ul>
 	<li>"Clear" the Patient/Client for Intervention - These are tests, assessments and evaluations used to determine if a patient/client's issue may improve given the assessing professional's scope, skills, abilities and willingness to treat that individual.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, many of the special tests used in orthopedic medicine assist in determining the level of pathology or likelihood of a particular diagnosis. Certain issues and diagnoses are beyond the scope of the human movement professional, and are better treated by diagnostic professionals in the medical community (physicians, podiatrists, surgeons, etc.). A Calf Squeeze (Thompson) Test is one example, in which a positive sign may indicate a rupture of the Achilles tendon that may be better treated via surgical intervention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Highlight Contraindications - Tests, assessments and evaluations used to stratify risk or preclude a professional from addressing certain tissues, motions or using a particular technique.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, the Vertebral Artery Test (VBI) is often used to determine if high velocity thrust mobilizations (manipulations) are safe for a patient with cervical dysfunction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection: Tests, assessments and evaluations used to assist the professional in determining which techniques, modalities and exercises will best address a patient/client's complaints or desired goals.
<ul>
 	<li>Most movement assessments fall into this category. For example, a positive <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/elys-test-rectus-femoris-flexibility-assessment/" target="_blank">Ely's Test</a> may indicate a need to release and/or lengthen the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/" target="_blank">rectus femoris</a>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Note: An assessment, or assessment result, may fall into more than one category. For example, although goniometry is an assessment most often used to Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection, if a range of motion is significantly altered, with an abnormal end-feel, and/or causes the patient or client/pain, the individual may need to be referred to a physician for further testing and Clearance to resume rehab activities.  Further, that same patient may return to the human movement professional with a list of Contraindicated Activities from the physician. - "When in doubt, refer out!"

Axial Skeleton - referring to the bones of the head, neck, trunk and spinal column (does not include pelvis). There are approximately 80 bones in the axial skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Axial, as in "axis", referring to "imaginary motionless straight line around which a body (such as the Earth) rotates," from Latin axis "axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky" - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/axis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Axial skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/appendicular-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">appendicular skeleton</a>".

Balance - The ability to maintain a body’s center of mass over its base of support. Balance can be static or dynamic.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, maintaining balance is harder on one leg because the center of mass must stay over a much smaller base of support.</li>
</ul>

A ball and socket joint (also called a spheroid joint or spheroidal joint) is a synovial joint in which the rounded or spherical end of one bone fits into a cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. Examples include the hip and shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

Base of support (BoS) - refers to the area beneath an object or person, and the area within the perimeter created by every point of contact that the object or person makes with the supporting surface. This may include the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glutes</a> of someone sitting on a chair, or the back of someone leaning against a wall.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, during a single leg balance the BoS is the area of the foot in contact with the surface; however, when a person is standing on two feet, the BoS is the area of both feet and the surface between them.</li>
</ul>

Pertaining to both sides

Example, bilateral rows are performed with both arms at the same time.

Case-control Study - a particular form of retrospective study that samples a matched group of people who have, and do not have the outcome being studied. A case-control study is a quasi-experimental design, often used in medicine to aid in determining potential contributing factors (cannot determine causality). In this study type exposure is the dependent variable and outcome is independent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in this retrospective case-control, medical records were investigated for trends correlated with cervical pain (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Mäkela, M., Heliövaara, M., Sievers, K., Impivaara, O., Knekt, P., &amp; Aromaa, A. (1991). Prevalence, determinants, and consequences of chronic neck pain in Finland. American journal of epidemiology, 134(11), 1356-1367.</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the tail, relative to humans this term is often used to refer to "in the direction of the tale (toward the feet)".

Example, to release the trapezius muscle the therapist used a force directed caudally.

Center of mass (CoM) - an object's mean position of mass; that is, a point that is perfectly surrounded by an equal amount mass in all directions.

Center of gravity (CoG) - point where gravity appears to act. Since the human body is so small compared to the earth, we can assume gravity acts uniformly on the body, and that CoG and CoM are the same.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the CoM of the human body while lying down or standing straight up is close to our navel. However, it is possible that during a resistance exercise, the combination of the body's weight and the weight of the resistance will place the combined CoM outside the body. For example, during the mid-portion of a <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/back-squat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">back squat</a> the CoM would be several anterior to the naval.</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the head (synonym: cranial)

Example, hip pain was felt with any force directed cephalad.

Cohort Study - a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic), performing a cross-section at intervals through-out a period of time. A cohort study is a quasi-experimental design often used in medicine to aid in determining etiology or a cause-and-effect relationship. In this study type exposure is the independent variable and outcome is dependent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Cholewicki et al. (1) investigated Yale Varsity Athletes (the cohort) with 2 and 3 year follow up (longitudinal design) and found that trunk muscle response time to off-loading was predictive of future low back injury.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/core/increased-trunk-muscle-latency-may-cause-rather-than-result-from-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</a></li>
</ol>

Comparable Sign: A combination of pain, stiffness and/or spasm during examination that is comparable to the patients symptoms.
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

An alternative movement pattern that has been adopted to compensate for dysfunction/impairment in the human movement system.
Example: A lack of calf extensibility may limit dorsiflexion, leading to the knees bowing inward (functional valgus) and excessive forward lean of the torso during a squat.

An arthrokinematic motion - the approximation of joint surfaces; that is, a force that directs one bone surface into another resulting in a reduction in intra-articular volume. Although widely thought of as a "destructive force", it is likely best to consider compression as a naturally occurring, stabilizing force. Any arthrokinematic force in excess (spin, glide, roll, traction) may be viewed as potentially deleterious.

For example, during a squat the femoral head is compressed into the acetabulum by muscular forces, bodyweight and any additional external load.

Concave (Concavity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the interior surface of a bowl or sphere - to cave-in or curve inward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the internal surfaces of the pelvis is concave, holding some of the bodies viscera.</li>
</ul>

Concordant Sign - The patient's specific pain, symptom or complaint. 
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

Conductivity: Stimulation results in more than a local effect (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, in a muscle cell the stimulation of a motor endplate results in a change in cell membrane polarity that rapidly propagates (is conducted) along the entire length of the muscle cell, stimulating all sacromere.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

A condyloid joint (also called condylar, bicondylar, ellipsoid, or ellipsoidal) is an ovoid articular surface, or condyle, that is received into an elliptical cavity.  These joints permit movement in two planes.  Examples include the knee, metacarpophalangeal joints and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Connective Tissue Cell - One of the four basic types of animal tissue, consisting mostly fibers and ground substance.  These cells are specialized to binds organs together, holds them in place, protect them from external forces, and may fill space in the body's cavities.

Example, the body's muscles are enclosed in durable connective tissue sheets known as the "epimysium", "perimysium", and "endomysium," which and in support and transmitting force.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Contractility: The ability to shorten (1).
<ul>
 	<li>Contractility: Muscle cells are unique in the amount they can shorten when stimulated; this is this largerly due to the highly organized and unique arrangement of myofilaments (actin and myosin).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Pertaining to the opposite side

Example, the external oblique muscle performs contralateral rotation; rotation to the opposite side.

Convex (Convexity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere - to bulge or curve outward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the top of your head is shaped by the convex exterior surface of your skull.</li>
</ul>

Correlational Research - Non-experimental <a href="https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/">research</a> method in which the statistical relationship between two variables is investigated.
<ul>
 	<li>In this research by Kwon et al., a correlation was noted between a decrease in extensibility during a hamstring length test (goniometry) and current knee pain (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/correlation-patellofemoral-pain-syndrome-pfps-hamstring-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kwon O, Yun M, and Lee W. (2014). Correlation between intrinsic patellofemoral pain syndrome in young adults and lower extremity biomechanics. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26: 961-964</a></li>
</ol>

Counter-nutation - posterior rotation of sacrum relative to ilium, and/or anterior rotation of ilium relative to sacrum.
<ul>
 	<li>The pelvic floor muscles are examples of muscle that may counter-nutate the sacrum.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_126335" align="aligncenter" width="400"]<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png"><img class=" wp-image-126335" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png" alt="Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint" width="400" height="967" /></a> Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint[/caption]

&nbsp;

Crossover (Study) Design - A type of longitudinal, repeated measures quasi-experimental design in which each group receives both treatments, but at different times. It is named "crossover" due to the patients "crossing-over" to the other treatment or sham group after a specified period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>This type of study has the advantage of every individual serving as their own control, which may reduce the influence of confounding variables.</li>
 	<li>Unfortunately, the design itself introduces the chances that anyone receiving the experimental variable in the first period will continue to be effected in the second period.</li>
</ul>
In a study by Senna et al., a cross-over design was used to investigate the difference load made on inter-set rest intervals (1).
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/strength-training-research-corner/heavy-vs-light-load-single-joint-exercise-performance-with-different-rest-periods/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Senna, G.W., Rodrigues, B.M., Sandy, Scudese, Bianco, A, &amp; Dantas, E.H.M. (2017). Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different intervals. Journal of Human Kinetics, 58, 197-206. </a></li>
</ol>

Cross-sectional Study - a research design that involves gathering data from a population or representative subset at a specific point in time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Karimi-Mobarake et al.(1) investigated the prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum among school children 7-11 years old in Iran.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/low-prevalence-of-genu-varum-and-valgum-among-elementary-school-children/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karimi-Mobarake, M., Kashefipour, A., Yousfnejad, Z. The prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum in primary school children in Iran 2003-2004. (2005) Journal of Medical Science 5(1). 52-54</a></li>
</ol>

Cytokine - A broad and loose category of small proteins that act through receptors, and are especially important to immune function (inflammation).
<ul>
 	<li>Cytokines include substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Their definite distinction from hormones is a topic of continued research.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Dependent variable - in research, this is the variable that is changed by the independent variable, most often this is the "outcome" of the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Cleland et al. (1), the independent variable is "thoracic manipulation," and the dependent variable is "lower trapezius muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/short-term-effects-lower-thoracic-manipulation-lower-trapezius-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cleland J, Selleck B, Stowell T, Brown L, Alberini S, St. Cyr H, Caron T. Short-term Effects of Thoracic Manipulation on Lower Trapezius Muscle Strength.  Journal of Manual &amp; Manipulative Therapy. 2004; 12(2): 82-90</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the trunk or center of the body

Example, the foot is at the distal end of the leg.

An arthrokinematic motion - a force applied to a body part that may result in the separation of joint surfaces, a reduction in intra-articular pressure, and/or an increase in intra-articlar space.

For example, to hang from one's hands (i.g. in preparation for a pull-up) results in a traction force on the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

An anatomical term of location; back or upper surface

Example, shoe laces may compress tissues on the dorsal surface of the foot

The "drawing-in" maneuver is a common cue used during exercise and rehabilitation programs. A light contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abominis</a> (and potentially the entire <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>) achieved by gently pulling the lower abdominal region away from one's waist band. This should have minimal effect on breathing, and should not be confused with a maximal contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abdominis</a> resulting in a "vacuum pose".
<ul>
 	<li>Research often refers to this maneuver as the "abdominal drawing-in maneuver"; abbreviated ADIM.</li>
</ul>
Development and introduction of this cue into practice is based on the pivotal research and resulting text:
<ol>
 	<li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization – A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
</ol>

Faulty or abnormal movement; an alteration of normal kinematics.

For example, joint stiffness or a reduction in arthrokinematics motion that results in limited osteokinematic range of motion - inadequate inferior glide of the femoral head resulting in limited abduction of the hip.

The seeping into, or abnormal collection of fluid in a body cavity.

For example, knee effusion describes swelling within the knee joint.

Note: the word "effusion" is used differently in medicine than it is used in reference to the movement (seeping out) of liquids and gases, for example in chemistry.

&nbsp;

A trait of body tissues that allows a tissue to return to its resting length or state after deformation or stretch.
Example:  Muscle is elastic tissue; many muscles will return to their resting length after being stretched to 150% of that length without any appreciable change in tissue quality.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a cell to return to its resting length after being stretched/lengthened.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: this term is often confused with extensibility. Elasticity is not the ability to stretch; it is the ability to return to normal length after being stretched. Muscle tissue, connective tissue and even nerve tissue have varying levels of elasticity.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Epithelial cell - One of the four basic cell types, found lining the body's cavities, blood vessels, organs and constitutes most gland tissue.  These cells are specialized to aid with absorption, secretion, or act as a barrier from foreign objects.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. S., &amp; Miller, L. (1998). Anatomy &amp; physiology. New York (NY): WCB/McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Equilibrium - a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, to maintain a neutral trunk while pushing or pulling a weight in one hand, your core musculature must balance the force by creating an equal amount of force in the opposite direction.</li>
</ul>

The study of causation, or origination. The word is commonly used in the medical professions, where it may refer to the study of why things occur, or the reason behind why things act a certain way.

For example, the etiology of low back pain is a complex subject, with multiple contributing factors and various structures implicated.

<div class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Evidence-based medicine (practice) is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient(client) values (2)."</div>
<ul>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">...the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (clients).  It involves the integration of at least (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve (1).</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. M., Haynes, R. B., &amp; Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.</li>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett D et al. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd edition. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p.1</li>
</ol>

Excitability: The ability of a cell to change in membrane conductance as a response to stimulation.

<ul>
 	<li>For example, muscle cells are specialized to react to a change in membrane potential with contraction, where as nerve cells are specialized to propagate a change in membrane potential along there axons and communicate that message to other tissues via neurotransmitters.
</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Excitation threshold: The level that a depolarization must reach for an action potential to occur.
<ul>
 	<li>The excitation threshold is a contributing factor to the "all-or-none" response of muscle and nerves cells to a stimulus.</li>
</ul>

Exercise Progression - Modification of an exercise with the intent of promoting adaptation by increasing demand. This can be accomplished by increasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise progression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise, or series of exercises that make it harder to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Progression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Exercise regression - The opposite of progression; that is, modification of an exercise with the intent of reducing demand. This can be accomplished by decreasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability. Generally, regressions are used to modify an exercise to the client's current level of ability, with the intent of improving form, motor learning and retention.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise regression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise or series of exercises that make it easier to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Regression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Experimental Research - Studies in which the researchers introduce the variable to be studied, with the intent of observing the outcome. This is different than observational research which observes the effect of a variable already present. Many texts also assert that experimental research should include randomization and ideally a control group, as is seen in Randomized Control Trials. Studies in which the variable is introduced by the researchers, but participants are not randomized may be considered Quasi-experimental research.
<ul>
 	<li>In this study by Esformes, the experimental variable was squat depth and the outcome measures observed were various performance measures related to power (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/back-squat-depth-lower-body-post-activation-potentiation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Esformes, J., &amp; Bampouras, T. (2013). Effect of back squat depth on lower-body postactivation potentiation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 2997-3000.</a></li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Extensibility: The ability of a cell to be stretched or lengthened without damage (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, most cells would rupture with even a modest stretch, but muscles can stretch up to 3 times their contracted length.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

False Negative - the proportion of negatives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as negative when the patient was actually positive)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

False Positive - the proportion of positives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as positive when the patient was actually negative)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

The function of fascia is to transmit force, provide support, and protect tissues. Fascia can effect motion by:
Transmitting force from one or more muscles (example: the thoracolumbar fascia)
Restricting motion in cases of adaptive shortening and/or adhesion to proximal structures (example: iliotibial band in cases of lower-leg dysfunction)
Elastic recoil after stretching can contribute to force production (example: plyometric exercise)

Note: There is evidence that fascia may house more receptors related to human movement than other tissues. In this way fascia may act as a motherboard for the nervous system

The fascial system does not contract or develop trigger points, and its capacity to adapt to stretching and or strengthening exercise is limited, especially when compared to the adaptive capacity of muscle tissue.

Fibromyalgia - A loosely defined diagnosis that is associated with a combination of widespread pain in combination with 2) tenderness at 11 or more of the 18 specific tender point sites. Consideration may also be given to the presence of psychosocial stressors and inflammatory disease in the patients history. Newer research suggests that fibromyalgia may be at least in part due to central sensitization of myofascial pain, often associated with trigger points (1 - 4).
<ol>
 	<li>Wolfe, F. (2018). Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome Criteria: Problems in Definition and Validity. Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Widespread Pain: From Construction to Relevant Recognition.</li>
 	<li>Wolfe, F., Smythe, H. A., Yunus, M. B., Bennett, R. M., Bombardier, C., Goldenberg, D. L., ... &amp; Fam, A. G. (1990). The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology, 33(2), 160-172.</li>
 	<li>Alonso-Blanco, C., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Morales-Cabezas, M., Zarco-Moreno, P., Ge, H. Y., &amp; Florez-García, M. (2011). Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. The Clinical journal of pain, 27(5), 405-413.</li>
 	<li>Staud, R., Nagel, S., Robinson, M. E., &amp; Price, D. D. (2009). Enhanced central pain processing of fibromyalgia patients is maintained by muscle afferent input: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. PAIN®, 145(1-2), 96-104.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.
Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.

An increase in joint stability via compressive forces resulting from muscular contraction and increased tension in fascial structures (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to core intrinsic stabilizers, the thoracolumbar fascia and the sacroiliac joint; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Form closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

The relative contribution of joint shape and structure to the stability of a joint (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to the "rough" articulating surfaces of the sacroiliac joint and the wedge shape of the sacrum; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Force closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

An arthrokinematic motion - linear motion across a joint surface parallel to the plane of the adjacent joint surface, just as your posterior moves relative to a "slide" in a park.

For example, the glide of facet joint in the spine during spinal flexion and extension, or the posterior glide of the humeral head that must accompany anterior roll to maintain congruence with glenoid fossa during shoulder horizontal adduction.

A plane joint (also called an arthrodial joint, gliding joint or plane articulation) is a synovial joint which allows only gliding movement in the plane of the articular surfaces. The opposed surfaces of the bones are flat or almost flat, with movement generally limited by tight capsules and ligaments. Plane joints are numerous, are most often small, and allow very little motion.  Examples include the carpal joints of the wrist, the tarsal joints of the ankle, and the facet joints of the spine.

"...refers to the measurement of angles, in particular the measurement of angles created at human joints by the bones of the body (1).

&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White. Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry 3rd Edition. Copyright (C) 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
</ol>

Ground reaction force (GRF) - The force exerted by the ground on the body in contact with it.

For example, when a runner's foot strikes the ground with a force equal to the mass of the individual times their acceleration due to gravity, momentum and muscular exertion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on the runner's foot.
<ul>
 	<li>GRF is often measured in research studies using force plates as a means of quantitatively measuring the force generated by an individual.</li>
</ul>

H-Band - Refers to the central zone of a sarcomere that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the sarcomere is a lighter portion of the A-band where there is no overlap between the thinner filaments (actin), and the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>Example, when a muscle contracts, actin and myosin cross-bridging occurs in the region of the A-band until the H-band is reached where no overlap occurs.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

A hinge joint (also called a ginglymus) is a synovial joint in which the articular surfaces fit one another in a way that only permits motion in one plane. Examples include the elbow, the knee (unless considered a condyloid joint) and the interphalangeal joints.

Holism (holistic) (biological holism) - (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that systems and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts.
<ul>
 	<li>Summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics": "The whole is more than the sum of its parts". However, the term "holism" was introduced into language by the South African statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. (Smuts J. C. 1987 [1926]. Holism and evolution. Cape Town: N &amp; S Press.)</li>
</ul>
Example: The Brookbush Institute promotes a holistic approach to human movement science, in which the muscular, fascial, articular and neural systems are not viewed as separable and all proximal segments are considered.

Hormone: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, transported via tissue fluids such as blood, to stimulate cells to "act."
<ul>
 	<li>Example: Growth hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain; stimulating growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in certain types of cells</li>
</ul>
The English physician E. H. Starling discovered in collaboration with the physiologist W. M. Bayliss secretin, the first hormone, in 1902. (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Henriksen, J. H., &amp; de Muckadell, O. S. (2000). Secretin, its discovery, and the introduction of the hormone concept. Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation, 60(6), 463-472.</li>
</ol>

A range of motion achieved by the patient/client that is more than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If an individual can place their forehead on their knees they are likely hypermobile at one, if not several joints

Example 2: 110° of shoulder external rotation would be considered hyper-mobile.

Hyperplasia is an increase in organic tissue size due to an adaptive increase in the number of cells per organ.
<ul>
 	<li>Although muscle hyperplasia has been noted in some animals, human muscle tissue does not seem to have this adaptive ability.</li>
</ul>

A condition of excessive tone of the skeletal muscles; increased resistance of muscle to passive stretching.  May be related to increased neural drive, synergistic dominance, trigger points, reflexive over-activity, and/or muscle length.
Example:  Individuals who exhibit ankle eversion and abduction during an overhead squat assessment likely have hypertonic fibularis (peroneal) muscles.

Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle mass/size due to increase in the volume and cross-sectional area (CSA) of individual muscle cells. The increase in cross-sectional area can be attributed to an an increase in contractile proteins and structural elements (myofibrillar hypertophy), as well as an increase in glycogen storage and elements related to metabolism (sarcoplasmic hypertophy). Hypertrophy is an adaptation of both cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers in response to progressive increases in workload.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Hypertrophy is not hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle size due to an adaptive increase in the number of muscle fibers/cells per muscle. This type of adaptation does not occur in human muscle tissue.</li>
</ul>

A range of motion achieved by a patient/client that is less than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If the end range of shoulder external rotation is reached and measured as 75° during goniometric assessment, the client/patient is exhibiting hypomobility of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a phenomenon; "scientific hypotheses" are generally constructed in a way that is testable or falsifiable.
<ul>
 	<li>Example: The hypothesis, "excessive knee valgus may be correlated with future knee pain and injury," has been the subject of several studies published over the last decade.</li>
</ul>

Diminished tone of skeletal muscles; diminished resistance of muscles to passive stretching.   May be related to inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, arthrokinematics inhibition and/or  increased resting length of muscle.
Example:  If your knees cave (hip adduction) during a squat or leg-press it is likely that your gluteus medius is hypotonic.

I-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the cell is lighter due to parallel arrangement of thinner filaments (actin), and no overlap with the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the I-bands will decrease in width and move closer to one another.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Independent variable - in research, this is the variable or phenomenon being manipulated in the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Ghanbari et al. (1), the independent variable is "knee joint mobilization", the dependent variable is "quadriceps muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/effect-knee-joint-mobilization-quadriceps-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ghanbari A. and Kamalgharibi S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences. 2(4): 186-191</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; toward the bottom (below)

Example, the mouth is inferior to the eyes

A reduction in neural drive, muscular activity, and or force output due to altered neuromuscular reflex.  Alterations in neuromuscular reflex may occur due to increases in muscle length (hypothesis: increased excitation threshold), altered reciprocal inhibition in response to increased antagonist tone, and or alterations in joint motion (arthrokinematics inhibition).

Making a whole of parts.

Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.

Intermuscular Coordination - Optimal timing and motor unit recruitment of agonists, antagonists, synergists, neutralizers, stabilizers and fixators.

Example: Role of Muscles during Hip Extension
<ul>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Prime Mover" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/prime-mover/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Prime Mover&lt;/div&gt;The muscle most responsible for a joint action under load -&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, the muscle that can produce the most force for a given joint action. Often this term is used synonymously with the term agonist. The prime mover as defined above, may or may not be the most active muscle for a joint action during activities of daily living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: the gluteus maximus is the most powerful hip extensor and therefore the prime mover; however, the hamstrings are likely the most active hip extensors during low level activities like walking or standing.">Prime Mover</a>:  <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/external/82855344.hd.mp4?s=54c3e7d98fb9d4e0af8d282c85ba9b3e">Gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Synergists" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/synergists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Synergists&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that assist the prime mover in performing a joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all muscles that can perform a joint action that are not the prime mover, are termed synergists.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The rectus abdominis is the prime mover of spinal flexion. All other muscles that can perform spinal flexion are synergists including – external obliques, internal obliques and psoas.">Synergists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/biceps-femoris/">Biceps femoris (long head)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/semitendinosus-and-semimembranosus/">semitendinosus, semimembranosus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">posterior head of adductor magnus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Antagonist" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/antagonists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Antagonist&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.">Antagonists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/psoas/">Psoas</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/iliacus/">iliacus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl/">tensor fascia latae</a> (TFL),<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/"> rectus femoris</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">anterior adductors (especially pectineus)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/sartorius/">sartorius</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Neutralizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/neutralizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Neutralizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose unwanted joint motions created by the prime mover and/or synergists, and/or muscles that prevent unwanted ancillary motion.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The teres minor and infraspinatus neutralize the internal rotation force created by the pectoralis major during horizontal adduction of the shoulder.">Neutralizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-minimus/">Gluteus minimus</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-medius/">anterior fibers of gluteus medius</a> neutralize external rotation force of <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/">gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Stabilizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/stabilizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Stabilizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles whose primary role is to improve arthrokinematics by maintaining optimal alignment of joint surfaces.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most often these muscles are the most intrinsic muscles of a joint, have a larger percentage of Type I muscle fibers and are rich in proprioceptors.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the rotator cuff act as stabilizers for most shoulder motions.">Stabilizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/deep-rotators-of-the-hip/">Deep rotators of hip</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Fixator" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/fixators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Fixator&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.">Fixators</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/">Intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-abdominis/">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/internal-obliques/">internal</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/external-obliques/">external obliques</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/quadratus-lumborum/">quadratus lumborum</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/erector-spinae/">erector spinae</a></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Example from: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/introduction-to-functional-anatomy/kinesiology-of-the-hip/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to Functional Anatomy: Kinesiology of the Hip</a>

Intramuscular coordination refers to the coordinated recruitment of motor units within a single muscle. This concept is used to explain increases in maximal strength and power; however, the coordinated and sequential recruitment of motor units is also essential to strength endurance and smooth coordinated motion.  Related terminology may include; motor unit recruitment, preferential recruitment, rate coding, sequence, etc..

Example: It is hypothesized that the "shaking" noted during a novice exercisers attempt at an activity like the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/ball-crunch-and-progressions/" target="_blank">stability ball crunch</a> may be due to relatively poor intramuscular coordination. Rather than smooth, sequential firing of rectus abdominis motor units, groups of motor units turn on and off in an uncoordinated manner.

Pertaining to the same side

Example, the quadratus lumborum performs ipsilateral flexion; lateral flexion toward the same side as the muscle.

An isoform, or variant, is a member of a set of similar proteins, that originate from the same gene, or gene family.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the variations in myosin heavy chain proteins (MHC I, MHC IIA, MHC IIB/X) that contribute to the characteristic differences between muscle fiber types.</li>
</ul>

“The Prime Assumption”
Everything crossing a joint will influence joint motion during every joint action.

A concept that has expanded over the past several decades to describe the integration of 4 body systems (muscle, joints, fascia and nerves), as well as, the coordinated function of various body segments (e.g. hip, knee and ankle) to produce motion. Kinetic referring to motion, and chain being an analogy for the interdependent link between systems.

Example, the posterior kinetic chain, refers to the integrated function of nerves, muscles, fascia and joints on the posterior side of the body.

The concept of the kinetic chain was originally adapted from the work of a mechanical engineer named Franz Reuleaux (Kinematics of Machinery (1875)) by Dr. Arthur Steindler in 1955 (Steindler A: Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas Co.. 1955).

Latent Trigger Point - A myofascial trigger point that is not painful at rest, only painful when palpated, and may or may not exhibit a characteristic referral pain pattern when palpated.  Latent trigger points do result in an acute point of sensitivity, in a taut band of muscle, and may restrict range of motion (1).

Note: Based on the clinical experience, the Brookbush Institute suggests that latent trigger points (sometimes refereed to as Tender Points) are more common than active trigger points. Further, they are likely addressed more often than trigger points; being the intended target of many soft-tissue mobility techniques.
<ol>
 	<li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,© 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the midline

Example, the anterior deltoid is lateral to the pectoralis major

Length/Tension Relationship - The amount of force generated by a muscle is dependent on sarcomere length.
<ul>
 	<li>The ability of sarcomere to maximally produce force occurs when sarcomere length results in optimal overlap between actin and myosin. Stretching a sarcomere decreases overlap between actin and myosin filaments and reduces force production (1-3). When length is less than optimal, actin from opposite ends overlap and interfere with cross-bridging, and myosin filament are compressed as they contact the the Z-disk also reducing force (4)</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Gordon, A. M., Huxley, A. F., &amp; Julian, F. J. (1966). The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. The Journal of physiology, 184(1), 170-192.</li>
 	<li>Edman, K. A. P. (1966). The relation between sarcomere length and active tension in isolated semitendinosus fibres of the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 183(2), 407-417.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L., Loren, G. J., &amp; Friden, J. (1994). In vivo measurement of human wrist extensor muscle sarcomere length changes. Journal of neurophysiology, 71(3), 874-881.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L. (2002). Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Levels of Evidence - Relative to evidence-based practice, levels of evidence are an attempt to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.  Note: levels of evidence do not supersede the critical evaluation of an experienced professional, and should be viewed as guidelines - a meta-analysis may be poorly constructed (Level IA), and a comparative study (Level III) may employ new technologies and a strong methodology.


The Levels of Evidence used by the Brookbush Institute, as described by Shekelle et al.(1):
<ul>
 	<li class="p1">IA - Evidence from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials</li>
 	<li class="p1">IB - Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIA - Evidence from at least one controlled study without randomization</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIB - Evidence from at least one other type of quasi-experimental study</li>
 	<li class="p1">III - Evidence from non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case-control studies</li>
 	<li class="p1">IV - Evidence from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, or both</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., &amp; Grimshaw, J. (1999). Developing clinical guidelines. Western Journal of Medicine, 170(6), 348.</li>
</ol>

Likelihood Ratios - Likilihood ratios are used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test. They use sensitivity and specificity to determine whether a test result usefully changes the practitioner's chance (probability) of reaching the correct assessment. Calculation of likelihood ratios is based on Baye's theorem.
<ul>
 	<li>Positive Likelihood Ratio (LR+) - The ratio of a positive test result in people with the pathology to a positive test result in people without the pathology.</li>
 	<li>Negative Likelihood Ratio (LR-) - The ratio of a negative test result in people with the pathology to a negative test result in people without the pathology.</li>
</ul>

Longitudinal Study - a research design that involves observing the same variables, several times over a period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Hewett et al. (1) is a type of longitudinal study called a "cohort study." This study investigated whether excessive knee valgus during landing was a predictor of knee injury risk in adolescent females over the course of a season.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/research-review-increased-valgus-during-landing-predicts-acl-injury-in-adolescent-female-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501</a></li>
</ol>

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