Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED): Predictive Model of Lower Extremity Movement Impairment

“Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED)" is an edit and update of previous postural dysfunction models (e.g. lower body posture, lower-crossed syndrome, pronation distortion, functional knee valgus, etc.). It is important to recognize that in these models the term "posture" is being used as an analogy for "ideal alignment". Similarly, when movement professionals refer to lower body posture, good posture, poor posture, better posture, etc. they are referring to this analogy of ideal alignment; not the rigid positioning implied by the colloquial use of the term "posture."

Postural dysfunction and movement impairment syndromes are likely the beginning of "modeling". Modeling has significant potential to aid in refining clinical decision-making, intervention selection, program design, and improve the reliability and effect size of outcomes. Models are especially conducive for assisting in interpreting multi-variant problems, which is how all clients and patients present. The Brookbush Institute recommends that all sports medicine professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, athletic trainers, etc.) consider these models as an aid in refining decision-making in practice.

Additional Models:

• Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)
• Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)

Definitions:

• Posture: Arthro- and osteo-kinematics alignment maintained by optimal myofascial activity and length, as a result of sensation, integration, and activation by the nervous system - both statically and dynamically.
• Postural Dysfunction: The absence of ideal posture as a result of maladaptation by one or multiple tissues within the human movement system.
  • Brookbush Institute Modern Definition: Modeling patterns of movement impairment correlated with orthopedic dysfunction, based on all available evidence, with the intent of predicting best-practice assessments and techniques, to optimize measured outcomes.

Summary:

Fascia (Reduction in Extensibility)

Myofascial Synergies (Altered Recruitment)

Arthorkinematics

Signs of Dysfunction

Overhead Squat Assessment :

• Feet flatten
• Feet turn-out
• Knees bow-in
• Knees bow-out
• Excessive lordosis (Anterior pelvic tilt)
• Excessive forward lean
• Asymmetrical Weight Shift

Goniometric Assessment

• Hip Internal Rotation at 90 Degrees of Hip Flexion < 35-45°
• Hip External Rotation at 90 Degrees of Hip Flexion < 35-45°
• Hip Extension < 0-10°
• Knee Extension with Hip Flexion (Hamstring Length  Test ) < 0-20°
• Dorsiflexion < 15-20°

Muscle Length Tests

• Ely's Test (Rectus Femoris )
• Ober's Test (Tensor Fasciae Latae )
• Thomas' Test (Iliacus/Psoas )
• Hamstring Length Test
• Gastroc/Soleus Length Test

Manual Muscle Tests

• Gluteus Medius
• Gluteus Maximus
• Tibial Internal Rotators
• Tibialis Posterior
• Tibialis Anterior

Correlated Injuries, Pathologies, and Pain

The Lower Extremity Dysfunction (LED) model is constructed based on research demonstrating the maladaptive alterations of tissues and motion associated with common impairments of the human movement system. Creating a list of these impairments adds to the definition of the LED model, as the model itself could be defined as the expected maladaptive changes to arise from those impairments.

• Ankle/Foot
  • Medial tibial stress syndrome (24, 34, 44)
  • Pronation (30, 34, 44)
  • Ankle Sprain (Inversion sprain) (62, 75, 123-124, 195, 198 -199, 203 - 204, 207, 211-212)
  • Ankle instability (19, 34, 71 - 74, 126, 196-197, 200 -202, 205-206, 208-210, 213, 218)
  • Achilles tendinopathy (31, 34, 42, 44, 156, 159-167)
  • Tibialis posterior tendinopathy (36 - 39, 110, 115-117, 121
  • Plantar fasciitis (plantar heel pain,) (43, 69, 111, 153-158)
• Knee
  • Anterior cruciate ligament injury (16, 230, 234)
  • Functional valgus (16 - 18, 23, 26-29, 234)
  • Knee pain (patellofemoral pain syndrome, jumper's knee ) (46, 48 - 51, 53-54,56, 58-59, 93, 102, 170, 225, 234-236)
  • Lateral knee pain (iliotibial band syndrome, runner's knee) (172, 215-216)
  • Knee osteoarthritis (217, 224, 227, 228)
  • Knee effusion (100)
  • Proximal tibiofibular joint pathology (215-217)
  • Tibiofibular joint subluxation/dislocation (218-222)
  • Medial and lateral heel whip (45)
• Hip
  • Trigger points (84)
  • Abductor tendon tear (87)
  • Adductor Groin Strain (94 - 97)
  • Femoral acetabular impingement (FAI) (238)
  • Hip Osteoarthritis (83, 239)
• Lumbosacral
  • Low Back Pain (76, 78, 128-129)
  • Sacroiliac joint pain (77)

Pre-approved credits for:

• Human Movement Specialist (HMS) Certification
• Integrated Manual Therapist (IMT) Certification

Pre-approved for Continuing Education Credits for:

• Athletic Trainers
• Chiropractors
• Group Exercise Instructors
• Massage Therapists
• Occupational Therapists - Advanced
• Personal Trainers
• Physical Therapists
• Physical Therapy Assistants
• Yoga Instructors

This Course Includes:

• AI Tutor
• Text and Illustrations
• Research Review
• Practice Exam
• Pre-approved Final Exam

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    • Feet Turn Out
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    • Knees Bow In:
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    • Excessive forward Lean
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    • Gastrocnemius, Soleus and Fibularis Muscles
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    • Biceps Femoris
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    • Adductor Magnus
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    • Tensor Fasciae Latae, Gluteus Minimus
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    • Vastus Lateralis
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    • Adductors
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    • Additional Over-active Muscle Research
98. Nene, A., Byrne, C., & Hermens, H. (2004). Is rectus femoris really a part of quadriceps?: Assessment of rectus femoris function during gait in able-bodied adults. Gait & posture, 20(1), 1-13.
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102. Peeler, J., & Anderson, J. E. (2007). Effectiveness of static quadriceps stretching in individuals with patellofemoral joint pain. Clinical journal of sport medicine, 17(4), 234-241.
103. Johnson, C. E., Basmajian, J. V., & Dasher, W. (1972). Electromyography of sartorius muscle. The Anatomical Record, 173(2), 127-130.
104. Stubbs, N. B., Capen, E. K., & Wilson, G. L. (1975). An electromyographic investigation of the sartorius and tensor fascia latae muscles. Research Quarterly. American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 46(3), 358-363.
     • Long Toe Flexors and Extensors:
105. Matsusaka, N. (1986). Control of the medial-lateral balance in walking. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica, 57(6), 555-559.
106. Perry, J., Ireland, M. L., Gronley, J., & Hoffer, M. M. (1986). Predictive value of manual muscle testing and gait analysis in normal ankles by dynamic electromyography. Foot & ankle, 6(5), 254-259.
107. Basmajian J. V., Stecko G.: The role of muscles in arch support of the foot. J. Bone Joint Surg., 45A: 1184–1190, 1963
108. Jimenez, A. L., McGlamry, E. D., & Green, D. R. (1987). Lesser ray deformities. Comprehensive textbook of foot surgery. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 57-111.
     • Tibialis Posterior
109. Kamiya T, Uchiyama E, Watanabe K, Suzuki D et al. (2012). Dynamic effect of the tibialis posterior muscle on the arch of the foot during cyclic axial loading. Clinical Biomechanics. 27:962-966.
110. Yao K, Yang TX, Yew WP. (2015). Posterior tibialis tendon dysfunction: overview of evaluation and management. Orthopedics. 38(6): 385-391.
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113. Souza, T. R., Pinto, R. Z., Trede, R. G., Kirkwood, R. N., & Fonseca, S. T. (2010). Temporal couplings between rearfoot–shank complex and hip joint during walking. Clinical biomechanics, 25(7), 745-748.
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123. Denegar, C. R., Hertel, J., & Fonseca, J. (2002). The effect of lateral ankle sprain on dorsiflexion range of motion, posterior talar glide, and joint laxity.Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 32(4), 166-173
124. Green, T., Refshauge, K., Crosbie, J., Adams, R. (2001). A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Passive Accessory Joint Mobilization on Acute Ankle Inversion Sprains. Physical Therapy, 2001. 81: 984-994
125. Wang R, Gutierrez-Farewik EM. (2011). The effect of subtalar inversion/eversion on the dynamic function of the tibialis anterior , soleus, and gastrocnemius during stance phase of gait. Gait & Posture . 29-35
126. Eils, E., and D. Rosenbaum. A multi-station proprioceptive exercise program in patients with ankle instability.Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 33, No. 12, 2001, pp. 1991–1998
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128. Chon S, You JH, Saliba SA. (2012). Cocontraction of ankle dorsiflexors and transversus abdominis function in patients with low back pain. Journal of Athletic Training. 47(4): 379-389
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129. Cooper, N., Scavo, K., Strickland, K., Tipayamongkol, N., Nicholson, J., Bewyer, D., Sluka, K. Prevalence of gluteus medius weakness in people with chronic low back pain compared to healthy controls. J Euro Spine. 26 May 2015
130. Lewis CL, Sahrmann. 2005 Timing of muscle activation during prone hip extension. Abstract. J Orhop Sports Phys Ther 35(1): A56.
131. Teng, H. and Powers, C. (2016) Hip Extensor Strength, Trunk Posture, and Use of the Knee-Extensor Muscles During Running. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(8), 000-000.
132. Selkowitz DM, Beneck GJ, Powers CM. (2016) Comparison of electromyographic activity of the superior and inferior portions of the gluteus maximus muscle during common therapeutic exercises. JOSPT. 46(9): 794-799.
133. Boren K, Conrey C, Coguic J, Paprocki L, Voight M, Robinson T. Eletromyographic Analysis of Gluteus Medius and Maximus During Rehabilitation Exercises. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2011 Sep; 6(3): 206–223 .
134. Queiroz, BC., Cagliari, MF., Amorim, CF., Sacco, IC. Muscle Activation During Four Pilates Core Stability Exercises in Quadruped Position. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010;91:86-92.
135. Berry, J. W., Lee, T. S., Foley, H. D., & Lewis, C. L. (2015). Resisted Side Stepping: The Effect of Posture on Hip Abductor Muscle Activation. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 45(9), 675-682.
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136. Lieb, F. J., & Perry, J. (1968). Quadriceps function: an anatomical and mechanical study using amputated limbs. JBJS, 50(8), 1535-1548.
137. Lloyd, D. G., & Besier, T. F. (2003). An EMG-driven musculoskeletal model to estimate muscle forces and knee joint moments in vivo. Journal of biomechanics, 36(6), 765-776.
138. Louie, J. K., & Mote, C. D. (1987). Contribution of the musculature to rotatory laxity and torsional stiffness at the knee. Journal of biomechanics, 20(3), 281-300.
139. Houck, J. (2003). Muscle activation patterns of selected lower extremity muscles during stepping and cutting tasks. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 13(6), 545-554.
140. Onishi, H., Ikeda, T., Yagi, R., Akasaka, K., Momose, K., Ihashi, K., & Handa, Y. (1998). EMG activities of the popliteus and hamstring muscles during maximum isokinetic knee flexion. Proc. of 12th Int. Society of Electrophysiology and Kinesiology, 12, 40-41.
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142. Andersen, L. L., Magnusson, S. P., Nielsen, M., Haleem, J., Poulsen, K., & Aagaard, P. (2006). Neuromuscular Activation in Conventional Therapeutic Exercises and Heavy Resistance Exercises: Implications for Rehabilitation. Physical Therapy, 86(5), 683-697. Accessed March 16, 2016.
143. Ghori, G. M., & Luckwill, R. G. (1985). Responses of the lower limb to load carrying in walking man. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 54(2), 145-150.
144. Basmajian, J. V., & Lovejoy, J. F. (1971). Functions of the Popliteus Muscle in Man. The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, 53(3), 557-562.
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145. Benjamin, M. (2009). The fascia of the limbs and back–a review. Journal of anatomy, 214(1), 1-18.
146. Stecco, C., Porzionato, A., Lancerotto, L., Stecco, A., Macchi, V., Day, J. A., & De Caro, R. (2008). Histological study of the deep fasciae of the limbs. Journal of bodywork and movement therapies, 12(3), 225-230.
147. Stecco, C., Pavan, P. G., Porzionato, A., Macchi, V., Lancerotto, L., Carniel, E. L., … & De Caro, R. (2009). Mechanics of crural fascia: from anatomy to constitutive modelling. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy, 31(7), 523-529.
148. Levangin, H.M. 2006. Connective tissue: a body-wide signaling network? Med. Hypotheses 66, 1074-1077
149. Carvalhais, VO., Ocarino, Jde M., Araújo, VL., Souza, TR., Silva, PL., Fonseca, ST. (2012). Myofascial force transmission between the latissimus dorsi and gluteus maximus muscles: An in vivo experiment. Journal of Biomechanics 46. 1003-1007
150. Schleip, R., Klingler, W., & Lehmann-Horn, F. (2006). Fascia is able to contract in a smooth muscle-like manner and thereby influence musculoskeletal mechanics. Journal of Biomechanics, 39, S488.
151. Schleip R, Naylor, I.L. Ursu, D. et al., 2006. Passive muscle stiffness may be influenced by active contractility of intramuscular connective tissue. Med Hypotheses 66, 66 – 71
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152. Hicks, J. H. (1954). The mechanics of the foot: II. The plantar aponeurosis and the arch. Journal of anatomy, 88(Pt 1), 25.
153. Sharkey, N. A., Ferris, L., & Donahue, S. W. (1998). Biomechanical consequences of plantar fascial release or rupture during gait: part I-disruptions in longitudinal arch conformation. Foot & ankle international, 19(12), 812-820.
154. Neufeld, S. K., & Cerrato, R. (2008). Plantar fasciitis: evaluation and treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 16(6), 338-346.
155. D’Ambrogi, E., Giurato, L., D’Agostino, M. A., Giacomozzi, C., Macellari, V., Caselli, A., & Uccioli, L. (2003). Contribution of plantar fascia to the increased forefoot pressures in diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 26(5), 1525-1529.
156. Giacomozzi, C., D’ambrogi, E., Uccioli, L., & Macellari, V. (2005). Does the thickening of Achilles tendon and plantar fascia contribute to the alteration of diabetic foot loading?. Clinical biomechanics, 20(5), 532-539.
157. Kane, D., Greaney, T., Shanahan, M., Duffy, G., Bresnihan, B., Gibney, R., & FitzGerald, O. (2001). The role of ultrasonography in the diagnosis and management of idiopathic plantar fasciitis. Rheumatology, 40(9), 1002-1008.
158. Huerta, J. P., & García, J. M. A. (2007). Effect of gender, age and anthropometric variables on plantar fascia thickness at different locations in asymptomatic subjects. European journal of radiology, 62(3), 449-453
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159. Clement, D. B., Taunton, J. E., & Smart, G. W. (1984). Achilles tendinitis and peritendinitis: etiology and treatment. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 12(3), 179-184.
160. Kvist, M. (1990, December). Achilles tendon injuries in athletes. In Annales chirurgiae et gynaecologiae (Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 188-201).
161. Arya, S., & Kulig, K. (2010). Tendinopathy alters mechanical and material properties of the Achilles tendon. Journal of applied physiology, 108(3), 670-675.
162. Rolf, C., & Movin, T. (1997). Etiology, histopathology, and outcome of surgery in achillodynia. Foot & ankle international, 18(9), 565-569.
163. Åström, M., Gentz, C. F., Nilsson, P., Rausing, A., Sjöberg, S., & Westlin, N. (1996). Imaging in chronic Achilles tendinopathy: a comparison of ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging and surgical findings in 27 histologically verified cases. Skeletal radiology, 25(7), 615-620.
164. Kannus, P. E. K. K. A., & Jozsa, L. (1991). Histopathological changes preceding spontaneous rupture of a tendon. A controlled study of 891 patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 73(10), 1507-1525.
165. Movin, T., Gad, A., Reinholt, F. P., & Rolf, C. (1997). Tendon pathology in long-standing achillodynia: biopsy findings in 40 patients. Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica, 68(2), 170-175.
166. Grigg, N. L., Wearing, S. C., & Smeathers, J. E. (2009). Eccentric calf muscle exercise produces a greater acute reduction in Achilles tendon thickness than concentric exercise. British journal of sports medicine, 43(4), 280-283.
167. Alfredson, H., Pietilä, T., Jonsson, P., & Lorentzon, R. (1998). Heavy-load eccentric calf muscle training for the treatment of chronic Achilles tendinosis. The American journal of sports medicine, 26(3), 360-366.
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168. Stecco, A., Gilliar, W., Hill, R., Fullerton, B., Stecco, Carla. (2013). The anatomical and functional relation between gluteus maximus and fascia lata. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies. 17. 512-517
169. Fairclough, J., Hayashi, K., Toumi, H., Lyons, K., Bydder, G., Phillips, N., … & Benjamin, M. (2006). The functional anatomy of the iliotibial band during flexion and extension of the knee: implications for understanding iliotibial band syndrome. Journal of Anatomy, 208(3), 309-316.
170. Sanchis – Alfanos, V., Rosello Sastre, E. 2000. Immunohistochemical analysis for neural markers of the lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated symptomatic patellofemoral malalignment. A neuroanatomic basis for anterior knee pain in the active young patient. Am J. Sports Med. 28, 725 – 731
171. Khan, K. M., Bonar, F., Desmond, P. M., Cook, J. L., Young, D. A., Visentini, P. J., … & Dowling, R. J. (1996). Patellar tendinosis (jumper's knee): findings at histopathologic examination, US, and MR imaging. Victorian Institute of Sport Tendon Study Group. Radiology, 200(3), 821-827.
172. Fredericson, M., & Wolf, C. (2005). Iliotibial band syndrome in runners. Sports Medicine, 35(5), 451-459.
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173. Vleeming, A., van Wingerden, J.P., Buyruk, H.M., Raissadat, K. Stabilization of the sacroiliac joint in vivo: verification of muscular contribution to force closure of the pelvis. European Spine Journal, 2004. 13: 199-205
174. Vleeming, A., Stoeckart, R., & Snijders, C. J. (1989). The sacrotuberous ligament: a conceptual approach to its dynamic role in stabilizing the sacroiliac joint. Clinical Biomechanics, 4(4), 201-203.
175. Vleeming, A., Van Wingerden, J. P., Snijders, C. J., Stoeckart, R., & Stijnen, T. (1989). Load application to the sacrotuberous ligament; influences on sacroiliac joint mechanics. Clinical Biomechanics, 4(4), 204-209.
176. Wingerden, J. V., Vleeming, A., Snijders, C. J., & Stoeckart, R. (1993). A functional-anatomical approach to the spine-pelvis mechanism: interaction between the biceps femoris muscle and the sacrotuberous ligament. European Spine Journal, 2(3), 140-144.
177. Woodley, S. J., Kennedy, E., & Mercer, S. R. (2005). Anatomy in practice: the sacrotuberous ligament. New Zealand Journal of Physiotherapy, 33(3).
178. Langevin, H., Fox, R., Koptiuch, C., Badger, G., Greenan-Nauman, A., Bouffard, N., Konofagou, E., Lee, W., Triano, J., Henry, S. (2011) Reduced thoracolumbar fascia shear strain in human low back pain. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 12: 203.
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179. Logan, G. A., & McKinney, W. C. (1977). Anatomic kinesiology. WC Brown Co..
180. Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability & Lumbopelvic Pain: Integration of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited
181. Vleeming, A., van Wingerden, J.P., Buyruk, H.M., Raissadat, K. Stabilization of the sacroiliac joint in vivo: verification of muscular contribution to force closure of the pelvis. European Spine Journal, 2004. 13: 199-205
182. Willard, F.H., Vleeming, A., Schuenke, M.D., Danneels, L., Schleip, R. The thoracolumbar fascia: anatomy, function and clinical considerations. Journal of Anatomy, 2012. 221, 507-536.
183. Vleeming A, Pool-Goudzward AL, Stoeckart R, et al. The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia: Its Function in Load Transfer from Spine to Legs. Spine 20:753-758, 1995
184. Kim, T., Yoo, W., An, D., Oh, J., Shin, S. (2013). The effects of different gait speeds and lower arm weight on the activities of the latissimus dorsi, gluteus medius, and gluteus maximus. Journal of Physical Therapy Science 25:11 1483-1484
185. Stevens, V.K., Vleeming, A., Bouche, KG., Mahieu, N.N., Vanderstraeten, G.G., Danneels, L.A. Electromyograhpic activity of trunk and hip muscles during stabilization exercises in four-point kneeling in healthy volunteers. European Spine Journal, 2007. 16: 711-718.
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186. Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Vleeming, A., Stoeckart, R., Snijders, C. J., & Mens, J. M. A. (1998). Insufficient lumbopelvic stability: a clinical, anatomical and biomechanical approach to ‘a-specific’ low back pain. Manual Therapy, 3(1), 12-20.
187. Snijders, C. J., Vleeming, A., & Stoeckart, R. (1993). Transfer of lumbosacral load to iliac bones and legs: Part 1: Biomechanics of self-bracing of the sacroiliac joints and its significance for treatment and exercise. Clinical biomechanics, 8(6), 285-294.
188. Snijders, C. J., Slagter, A. H., van Strik, R., Vleeming, A., Stoeckart, R., & Stam, H. J. (1995). Why Leg Crossing?: The Influence of Common Postures on Abdominal Muscle Activity. Spine, 20(18), 1989-1993.
     • Deep Longitudinal Subsystem
189. DeRiddler E., Oosterwijck, J., Vleeming, A., Vanderstraeten, G., Danneels, L. (2013). Posterior muscle chain activity during various extension exercises: an observational study. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 14: 204
190. van Wingerden, J. P., Vleeming, A., Buyruk, H. M., & Raissadat, K. (2004). Stabilization of the sacroiliac joint in vivo: verification of muscular contribution to force closure of the pelvis. European Spine Journal, 13(3), 199-205.
191. Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Hammudoghlu, D., Stoeckart, R., Snijders, C. J., & Mens, J. M. (1996). The function of the long dorsal sacroiliac ligament: its implication for understanding low back pain. Spine, 21(5), 556-562.
192. Leinonen, V., Kankaanpää, M., Airaksinen, O., & Hänninen, O. (2000). Back and hip extensor activities during trunk flexion/extension: effects of low back pain and rehabilitation. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 81(1), 32-37.
193. Vogt, L., Pfeifer, K., & Banzer, W. (2003). Neuromuscular control of walking with chronic low-back pain. Manual therapy, 8(1), 21-28.
194. Bozkurt, M., Yilmaz, E., Atlihan, D., Tekdemir, I., Havitçiogglu, H., & Günal, I. (2003). The proximal tibiofibular joint: an anatomic study. Clinical orthopaedics and related research, 406(1), 136-140.
     • Arthrokinematics
195. Denegar, C. R., Hertel, J., & Fonseca, J. (2002). The effect of lateral ankle sprain on dorsiflexion range of motion, posterior talar glide, and joint laxity.Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 32(4), 166-173
196. Hubbard, T. J., Olmsted-Kramer, L. C., Hertel, J., & Sherbondy, P. (2005). Anterior–posterior mobility of the talus in subjects with chronic ankle instability. Physical Therapy in Sport, 6(3), 146-152.
197. Wikstrom, E. A., & Hubbard, T. J. (2010). Talar positional fault in persons with chronic ankle instability. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 91(8), 1267-1271.
198. Green, T., Refshauge, K., Crosbie, J., Adams, R. (2001). A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Passive Accessory Joint Mobilization on Acute Ankle Inversion Sprains. Physical Therapy, 2001. 81: 984-994
199. Cosby, N. L., Koroch, M., Grindstaff, T. L., Parente, W., & Hertel, J. (2011). Immediate effects of anterior to posterior talocrural joint mobilizations following acute lateral ankle sprain. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 19(2), 76-83.
200. Hoch, M. C., & McKeon, P. O. (2011). Joint mobilization improves spatiotemporal postural control and range of motion in those with chronic ankle instability. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 29(3), 326-332.
201. Delahunt, E., Cusack, K., Wilson, L., & Doherty, C. (2013). Joint mobilization acutely improves landing kinematics in chronic ankle instability. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 45(3), 514-519.
202. Cruz-Díaz, D., Lomas Vega, R., Osuna-Pérez, M. C., Hita-Contreras, F., & Martínez-Amat, A. (2015). Effects of joint mobilization on chronic ankle instability: a randomized controlled trial. Disability and rehabilitation, 37(7), 601-610
203. Collins, N., Teys, P., & Vicenzino, B. (2004). The initial effects of a Mulligan's mobilization with movement technique on dorsiflexion and pain in subacute ankle sprains. Manual therapy, 9(2), 77-82.
204. Pellow, J. E., & Brantingham, J. W. (2001). The efficacy of adjusting the ankle in the treatment of subacute and chronic grade I and grade II ankle inversion sprains. Journal of manipulative and Physiological therapeutics, 24(1), 17-24.
205. Hoch, M. C., Mullineaux, D. R., Andreatta, R. D., English, R. A., Medina-McKeon, J. M., Mattacola, C. G., & McKeon, P. O. (2014). Effect of a 2-week joint-mobilization intervention on single-limb balance and ankle arthrokinematics in those with chronic ankle instability. Journal of sport rehabilitation, 23(1), 18-26.
206. Powden, C. J., Hogan, K. K., Wikstrom, E. A., & Hoch, M. C. (2016). The Effect of Two Forms of Talocrural Joint Traction on Dorsiflexion Range of Motion and Postural Control in Those With Chronic Ankle Instability. Journal of sport rehabilitation, 1-19.
207. Vicenzino, B., Branjerdporn, M., Teys, P., & Jordan, K. (2006). Initial changes in posterior talar glide and dorsiflexion of the ankle after mobilization with movement in individuals with recurrent ankle sprain. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 36(7), 464-471
     • Distal tibiofibular joint
208. Croy, T., Cosby, N. L., & Hertel, J. (2013). Active ankle motion may result in changes to the talofibular interval in individuals with chronic ankle instability and ankle sprain copers: a preliminary study. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 21(3), 127-133.
209. Hubbard, T. J., Hertel, J., & Sherbondy, P. (2006). Fibular position in individuals with self-reported chronic ankle instability. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 36(1), 3-9.
210. Berkowitz, C. M. J., & Kim, D. H. (2004). Fibular position in relation to lateral ankle instability. Foot & ankle international, 25(5), 318-321.
211. Eren, O. T., Kucukkaya, M., Kabukcuoglu, Y., & Kuzgun, U. (2003). The role of a posteriorly positioned fibula in ankle sprain. The American journal of sports medicine, 31(6), 995-998.
212. Kavanagh, J. (1999). Is there a positional fault at the inferior tibiofibular joint in patients with acute or chronic ankle sprains compared to normals?. Manual Therapy, 4(1), 19-24.
213. Grindstaff, T. L., Beazell, J. R., Sauer, L. D., Magrum, E. M., Ingersoll, C. D., & Hertel, J. (2011). Immediate effects of a tibiofibular joint manipulation on lower extremity H-reflex measurements in individuals with chronic ankle instability. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 21(4), 652-658
214. Whitman, J. M., Cleland, J. A., Mintken, P., Keirns, M., Bieniek, M. L., Albin, S. R., … & McPoil, T. G. (2009). Predicting short-term response to thrust and nonthrust manipulation and exercise in patients post inversion ankle sprain. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 39(3), 188-200.
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215. Semonian, R. H., Denlinger, P. M., & Duggan, R. J. (1995). Proximal tibiofibular subluxation relationship to lateral knee pain: a review of proximal tibiofibular joint pathologies. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 21(5), 248-257.
216. Beazell, J. R., Grindstaff, T. L., Magrum, E. M., & Wilder, R. (2009). Treatment of lateral knee pain by addressing tibiofibular hypomobility in a recreational runner. North American Journal of sports physical therapy: NAJSPT, 4(1), 21.
217. Sharma, M., Kaur, H., Rathore, P., & Pajnee, K. (2015). Effects of proximal and distal fibular glide in the subjects with knee osteoarthritis. Indian Journal of Physical Therapy, 2(2), 76-80.
218. Beazell, J. R., Grindstaff, T. L., Sauer, L. D., Magrum, E. M., Ingersoll, C. D., & Hertel, J. (2012). Effects of a proximal or distal tibiofibular joint manipulation on ankle range of motion and functional outcomes in individuals with chronic ankle instability. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 42(2), 125-134.
219. Ogden, J. A. (1974). Subluxation and dislocation of the proximal tibiofibular joint. J Bone Joint Surg Am, 56(1), 145-154.
220. JAMES C PARKES, I. I., & Zelko, R. R. (1973). Isolated Acute Dislocation of the Proximal Tibiofibular Joint: CASE REPORT. JBJS, 55(1), 177-180.
221. Sekiya, J. K., & Kuhn, J. E. (2003). Instability of the proximal tibiofibular joint. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 11(2), 120-128.
222. Giachino, A. A. (1986). Recurrent dislocations of the proximal tibiofibular joint. Report of two cases. JBJS, 68(7), 1104-1106.
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224. Deyle, G. D., Allison, S. C., Matekel, R. L., Ryder, M. G., Stang, J. M., Gohdes, D. D., … & Garber, M. B. (2005). Physical Therapy Treatment Effectiveness for Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomized Comparison of Supervised Clinical Exercise and Manual Therapy Procedures Versus a Home Exercise Program. Physical Therapy, 85(12), 1301.
225. Zemadanis, K., Sykaras, E., Athanasopoulos, S., & Mandalidis, D. (2015). Mobilization-with-movement prior to exercise provides early pain and functionality improvements in patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome. International Musculoskeletal Medicine, 37(3), 101-107.
226. Moss, P., Sluka, K., & Wright, A. (2007). The initial effects of knee joint mobilization on osteoarthritic hyperalgesia. Manual therapy, 12(2), 109-118.
227. Azlin, N. (2011). Effects of passive joint mobilization on patients with knee osteoarthritis (Kesan Mobilisasi Pasif Sendi ke Atas Pesakit Osteoartritis Lutut). Sains Malaysiana, 40(12), 1461-1465.
228. Sambandam, C. E., Sailor, S. N., & Alagesan, J. (2011). Effect of Mulligan Mobilization and Maitland Mobilization in Subjects with Unilateral Tibiofemoral Osteoarthritis Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (JPBMS), 11.
229. Ghanbari, A., & Kamalgharibi, S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (IJHRS), 2(4), 186-91.
230. Hunt, M. A., Di Ciacca, S. R., Jones, I. C., Padfield, B., & Birmingham, T. B. (2010). Effect of anterior tibiofemoral glides on knee extension during gait in patients with decreased range of motion after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Physiotherapy Canada, 62(3), 235-241.
231. Narang, S., & Ganvir, S. (2014). Efficacy of Kaltenbohn Mobilization on Patients with Osteoarthritis of Knee Joint. Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, 8(3), 162.
232. Rangey, P. S., Sheth, M. S., & Vyas, N. J. (2015). Comparison of Immediate Effect of Two Different Maitland Mobilization Protocols on Pain and Range Of Motion in Subjects with Osteoarthritis of Knee. Pain, 6, 8.
233. Fish, D., Kretzmann, H., Brantingham, J. W., Globe, G., Korporaal, C., & Moen, J. R. (2008). A Randomized Clinical Trial to Determine the Effect of Combining a Topical Capsaicin Cream and Knee-Joint Mobilization in the Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee. Journal of the American Chiropractic Association, 45(6).
     • Patellofemoral Joint
234. Powers, C. M. (2003). The influence of altered lower-extremity kinematics on patellofemoral joint dysfunction: a theoretical perspective. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 33(11), 639-646.
235. Crossley, K., Bennell, K., Green, S., Cowan, S., & McConnell, J. (2002). Physical therapy for patellofemoral pain a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. The American journal of sports medicine, 30(6), 857-865.
236. Taylor, K. E., & Brantingham, J. W. (2003). An investigation into the effect of exercise combined with patella mobilization/manipulation in the treatment of patellofemoral pain syndrome: a randomized, accessor-blinded, controlled clinical pilot trial. European Journal of Chiropractic, 51(1), 5-18.
     • Hip
237. Harding, L., Barbe, M., Shepard, K., Marks, A., Ajai, R., Lardiere, J., & Sweringa, H. (2003). Posterior-anterior glide of the femoral head in the acetabulum: A cadaver study. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 33(3), 118-125.
238. Kapron, A. L., Aoki, S. K., Peters, C. L., & Anderson, A. E. (2015). In-vivo hip arthrokinematics during supine clinical exams: Application to the study of femoroacetabular impingement. Journal of biomechanics, 48(11), 2879-2886.
239. Lloyd-Roberts, G. C. (1953). The role of capsular changes in osteoarthritis of the hip joint. Bone & Joint Journal, 35(4), 627-642.
240. Loubert, P. V., Zipple, J. T., Klobucher, M. J., Marquardt, E. D., & Opolka, M. J. (2013). In vivo ultrasound measurement of posterior femoral glide during hip joint mobilization in healthy college students. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 43(8), 534-541
241. Makofsky, H., Panicker, S., Abbruzzese, J., Aridas, C., Camp, M., Drakes, J., … & Sileo, R. (2007). Immediate effect of grade IV inferior hip joint mobilization on hip abductor torque: a pilot study. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 15(2), 103-110.
242. Yerys, S., Makofsky, H., Byrd, C., Pennachio, J., & Cinkay, J. (2002). Effect of mobilization of the anterior hip capsule on gluteus maximus strength. Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 10(4), 218-224.
     • Additional Research
243. Monaghan, K., Delahunt, E., & Caulfield, B. (2006). Ankle function during gait in patients with chronic ankle instability compared to controls. Clinical Biomechanics, 21(2), 168-174.
244. Palmieri, R. M., Ingersoll, C. D., Hoffman, M. A., Cordova, M. L., Porter, D. A., Edwards, J. E., … & Stone, M. B. (2004). Arthrogenic muscle response to a simulated ankle joint effusion. British journal of sports medicine, 38(1), 26-30.
245. Edwards, P. K., Ackland, T., & Ebert, J. R. (2014). Clinical rehabilitation guidelines for matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation on the tibiofemoral joint. journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy, 44(2), 102-119.
246. Fredericson, M., Cookingham, C. L., Chaudhari, A. M., Dowdell, B. C., Oestreicher, N., & Sahrmann, S. A. (2000). Hip abductor weakness in distance runners with iliotibial band syndrome. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 10(3), 169-175.
247. Hoch, M. C., Staton, G. S., & McKeon, P. O. (2011). Dorsiflexion range of motion significantly influences dynamic balance. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14(1), 90-92.