Introduction

Repetitions Until Failure

Concentric versus Eccentric Contractions

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)

Repetition Tempo and Preferential Hypertrophy of Specific Muscle Fiber Types

Non-explosive Tempos (Slow, Moderate, and Fast Tempos)

Velocity Specific Strength Gains

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)

MaxV Tempos and Young Adults

MaxV Tempos and Older Individuals

Equipment and Demographics

Research Summary

Repetition Velocity and Ideal Tempo for Power

Comparing Volume Matched Routines

Load More Than Super Slow Tempo

Repetition Tempo and One Repetition Maximum (1-RM) Strength

Repetition Tempo and Work Per Set

Testosterone, Human Growth Hormone (HGH), Cortisol, and Creatine Kinase

Protein Synthesis

Blood Lactate and Arterial Blood Flow

Repetition Tempo versus Load

Comparing Work Matched and Volume Matched Routines

Tempo Specific EMG Adaptations

Hypertrophy: Comparing Work Matched Routines and Volume Matched RoutinesComparing Work Matched Routines and Volume Matched Routines

Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

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This course discusses the <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> repetition tempo for various training goals (a.k.a. rep tempo, rep speed, rep cadence, lifting tempo, tempo training, etc.). That is, this course discusses the <a id="evidence-based-practice" data-tip="1538" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/evidence-based-practice" class="glossary">evidence-based</a> ideal tempos for endurance, hypertrophy, strength, <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, athletic performance, functional training, and corrective exercise. The details discussed include the effect rep tempos have on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> adaptations, short-term and long-term <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> concentrations, post-exercise protein synthesis, <a id="hypertophy" data-tip="1233" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hypertophy" class="glossary">muscle growth</a>, <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> type proportions, EMG activity, and ideal tempos for improving the rate of force development for athletes.
Some findings from the included systematic review resulted in counter-intuitive, or at least less conventional recommendations. For example, volume is likely more important for hypertrophy goals (increasing <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> mass), suggesting that if sets are performed with reps to failure, and each session is performed with the intent to iteratively increase volume, then slow, moderate, or max velocity concentric tempos may be used. Note, because time-under-tension is essential for increasing volume, it may be ideal to maintain slower eccentric tempos. Alternatively, research suggests that repetition tempo is the most important variable when training for peak velocity/power. Explosive tempos are not only ideal, but they are also essential for improving <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>.
Movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider acute variables essential knowledge for <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> exercise programming, and rep tempo is one of those acute variables. This course is part of our continued effort to optimize &#x201C;acute variable&#x201D; recommendations.
<h3>Additional Courses:</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-rest-between-sets">Acute Variables: Rest Between Sets</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-repetition-range">Acute Variables: Repetition Range</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-circuit-training">Acute Variables: Circuit Training</a></li>
</ul>
Repetition Tempo Recommendations
<table style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Goal</td>
 <td>Eccentric</td>
 <td>Isometric</td>
 <td>Concentric</td>
 <td>Most Influential Variable</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Activation Exercises</td>
 <td>2-4</td>
 <td>2-4</td>
 <td>MaxV or explosive</td>
 <td>Volume per set and peak/initial force</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Endurance</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV or longer</td>
 <td>Volume per set</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Hypertrophy</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV or longer</td>
 <td>Volume per routine, repetitions until failure, and load</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Functional Strength</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV</td>
 <td>Velocity, volume per routine</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Max Strength</td>
 <td>Volitional</td>
 <td>0</td>
 <td>MaxV</td>
 <td>
 Load
 <ul>
 <li>Note, slower tempos may be appropriate for improvements in strength at slower velocities.</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Power</td>
 <td>Explosive</td>
 <td>0</td>
 <td>Explosive</td>
 <td>
 Explosive tempos include a quick pre-stretch, the shortest <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> possible, and a concentric contraction with the intent to <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">release</a> or leave the ground.
 <ul>
 <li>Note, fast and MaxV tempos are not sufficient for young adults and elite athletes.</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
<h3>Repetition Tempos Short Hand</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Activation Exercises: 2:4:maxV</li>
 <li>Endurance: 2+:0-2:maxV+</li>
 <li>Hypertrophy:&#xA0;2+:0-2:maxV+</li>
 <li>Functional Strength:&#xA0;2+:0-2:maxV</li>
 <li>Maximum Strength: V:0:V (or event <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> tempo)</li>
 <li>Power: Explosive
 <ul>
 <li># indicate seconds</li>
 <li>&quot;+&quot; indicates &quot;or longer&quot;</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<img title="The bent over row exercise being performed in a group circuit" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644345925-ppd-workshop.jpg" alt="CLients performing the bent over row exercise">

Course Description: Repetition Tempo

Webinar: Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

<h3>Additional Courses:</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-rest-between-sets">Acute Variables: Rest Between Sets</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-repetition-range">Acute Variables: Repetition Range</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-repetition-tempo">Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo</a></li>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/acute-variables-circuit-training">Acute Variables: Circuit Training</a></li>
</ul>
<h3>Tempo Terminology</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Slow Tempo: 5 sec. or more per rep (e.g. 3:1:2)</li>
 <li>Moderate Tempo: 2 - 4 sec. per rep (e.g. 2:1:1)</li>
 <li>Fast tempo: 2 sec. or less per rep (e.g. 1:0:1)</li>
 <li>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV): A maximum velocity concentric contraction that does not include a quick pre-stretch, the intent to throw an object, or the intent to leave the ground (e.g. the fastest concentric contraction that can be achieved during a bench press or squat). These tempos are as fast as the load can be lifted, but are distinct from the explosive tempos used during <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises.</li>
 <li>Explosive: A maximal velocity rep that includes a quick pre-stretch, shortest possible <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> (isometric), and the intent to <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">release</a> or leave the ground during the concentric contraction.</li>
 <li>+: indicates &quot;or longer&quot;</li>
</ul>

Repetition Tempo Recommendations
<table style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Goal</td>
 <td>Eccentric</td>
 <td>Isometric</td>
 <td>Concentric</td>
 <td>Most Influential Variable</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Activation Exercises</td>
 <td>2-4</td>
 <td>2-4</td>
 <td>MaxV or explosive</td>
 <td>Volume per set and peak/initial force</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Endurance</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV or longer</td>
 <td>Volume per set</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Hypertrophy</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV or longer</td>
 <td>Volume per routine, repetitions until failure, and load</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Functional Strength</td>
 <td>2+</td>
 <td>0-2</td>
 <td>MaxV</td>
 <td>Velocity, volume per routine</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Max Strength</td>
 <td>Volitional</td>
 <td>0</td>
 <td>MaxV</td>
 <td>
 Load
 <ul>
 <li>Note, slower tempos may be appropriate for improvements in strength at slower velocities.</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Power</td>
 <td>Explosive</td>
 <td>0</td>
 <td>Explosive</td>
 <td>
 Explosive tempos include a quick pre-stretch, the shortest <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> possible, and a concentric contraction with the intent to <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">release</a> or leave the ground.
 <ul>
 <li>Note, fast and MaxV tempos are not sufficient for young adults and elite athletes.</li>
 </ul>
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
<h3>Repetition Tempos Short Hand</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Activation Exercises: 2:4:maxV</li>
 <li>Endurance: 2+:0-2:maxV+</li>
 <li>Hypertrophy:&#xA0;2+:0-2:maxV+</li>
 <li>Functional Strength:&#xA0;2+:0-2:maxV</li>
 <li>Maximum Strength: V:0:V (or event <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> tempo)</li>
 <li>Power: Explosive
 <ul>
 <li># indicate seconds</li>
 <li>&quot;+&quot; indicates &quot;or longer&quot;</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h2>General Guidelines and Recommendations</h2>
<ul>
 <li>Hypertrophy and Physiology:&#xA0;Research suggests that increasing volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) results in the largest increases in post-exercise circulating blood <a id="hormone" data-tip="1268" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormones</a> and enzymes, protein synthesis, and hypertrophy (increasing cross-sectional area). This implies that slower tempos, repetitions until failure/set, and perhaps more total sets/routine may be <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> for these goals.</li>
 <li>Endurance: Time-under-tension/set has the largest influence on endurance.&#xA0;This implies that slower tempos and repetitions until failure/set may be beneficial.</li>
 <li>Max Strength: Imposing a slower tempo may significantly decrease 1-RM strength; this finding includes slower eccentric tempos with volitional concentric tempos. It is recommended that lifters use a fast, self-paced repetition tempo during max strength training (1-6 RM/set).</li>
 <li>Power (High-velocity) Training: Research implies that resistance training with the goal of increasing peak velocity (<a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a>) must include exercises that allow for repetitions with explosive tempos. Although strength training may be beneficial for improving peak velocity long-term, there may be no difference in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">Power</a> outcomes when comparing slow, moderate, or fast tempos performed during strength training. In short, when training for strength optimize repetition tempos for improving strength, and when training for peak velocity optimize repetition tempos for peak velocity.</li>
 <li>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (maxV): MaxV tempos have demonstrated <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> efficacy for increasing strength and functional outcomes for young adults, elite athletes and elderly individuals (with the exception of much older and physically impaired elderly individuals). Further, maxV tempos are unlikely to have a negative influence on activation, endurance, or hypertrophy, especially when longer eccentric tempos and repetitions-to-failure/set are used to maintain <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> volume. This implies that maxV tempos may be recommended for all non-power goals. Note, slower concentric tempos may also be beneficial for increasing volume to aid in endurance, hypertrophy, and/or tempo-specific maximum strength goals. To notate that both maxV tempos and longer tempos may be beneficial in the table below, the abbreviation &quot;maxV+&quot; is used to imply &quot;maxV or longer tempo&quot;.</li>
 <li>Electromyographic (EMG) Activity (Activation): Faster concentric tempos and heavier loads are likely to result in the largest increase in initial and peak EMG activity; however, the largest increase in average EMG activity may result from slower tempos, lighter loads, repetitions until failure and higher average volume/set. This may imply that <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> activation tempos include fast and maxV concentric tempos to optimize peak EMG activity, with longer isometric and eccentric tempos to optimize average EMG activity and range of motion <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> strength (e.g. strength in a previously lost end range). Additionally, it may be necessary to incorporate explosive, or close to explosive tempos to maximize initial and peak EMG activity and improve activation latency (e.g. reactive <a id="activation-technique" data-tip="1529" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/activation-technique" class="glossary">activation exercise</a>).</li>
 <li>Very Slow/Super Slow Training: There is no benefit to very slow and super slow tempos when compared to slow and moderate tempos during volume-matched routines. Further, very slow and super slow tempos may be <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> for increasing strength due to the very light loads that must be used to complete pre-determined rep ranges (e.g. work and volume). These tempos are not recommended.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Terminology, Notations, and Definitions</h2>
<h3>Tempo Notation</h3>
Repetition (rep) tempos are generally notated in the following format &quot;(3:1:2)&quot;. The numbers are seconds (sec.) unless otherwise indicated, and each number corresponds to a phase of contraction in the following order: &quot;eccentric: isometric: concentric.&quot; For Example, a pull-up with a 4:1:2 tempo would be performed with the following cadence: &quot;2 sec. on the way up, 1 sec. hold at the top, 4 sec. on the way down.&quot;
<h4>Special Cases in Notating Research Tempos</h4>
<ul>
 <li>No Isometric: If research failed to indicate an isometric contraction length, or the intent was to not pause between eccentric and concentric contractions, then the isometric contraction length is assumed to be at or near &quot;0&quot; and a &quot;0&quot; is used in the isometric contraction position (e.g. 2:0:2).</li>
 <li>Failed to Indicate a Tempo: If research failed to indicate a tempo marking for a phase of contraction, and that tempo cannot be zero, a question mark was used in its place (e.g. 3:2:?).</li>
 <li>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV):&#xA0;This tempo will be abbreviated maxV (e.g. 2:1:maxV).</li>
 <li>Other Units of Measure: Some studies have listed tempos in units other than sec. per contraction phase, including time per complete rep (4-sec./rep), degrees or rads per second (90&#xB0;/sec.), and/or percent of maxV (50% of maxV). When possible, these notations were fit to standard tempo markings (e.g. 180&#xB0;/sec: 0 : 50% of Max V).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Tempo Terminology</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Slow Tempo: 5 sec. or more per rep (e.g. 3:1:2)</li>
 <li>Moderate Tempo: 2 - 4 sec. per rep (e.g. 2:1:1)</li>
 <li>Fast tempo: 2 sec. or less per rep (e.g. 1:0:1)</li>
 <li>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV): A maximum velocity concentric contraction that does not include a quick pre-stretch, the intent to throw an object, or the intent to leave the ground (e.g. the fastest concentric contraction that can be achieved during a bench press or squat). These tempos are as fast as the load can be lifted, but are distinct from the explosive tempos used during <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercises.</li>
 <li>Explosive: A maximal velocity rep that includes a quick pre-stretch, shortest possible <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1546" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization phase</a> (isometric), and the intent to <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">release</a> or leave the ground during the concentric contraction.</li>
 <li>+: indicates &quot;or longer&quot;</li>
</ul>
<h3>Special Use of the Terms &quot;Work&quot; and &quot;Volume&quot;</h3>
It is necessary to differentiate between &quot;load x reps&quot; and &quot;load x time under tension&quot; to develop accurate conclusions from training and rehabilitation research. Consider these two examples of idential work with volumes that differ by 100%: 10 reps/10kg/1:1:1 tempo, or 10 reps/10kg/3:1:2 tempo. The following definitions of &quot;work&quot; and &quot;volume&quot; are used throughout this course to aid in differentiating these terms.&#xA0;
<ul>
 <li>Work may be defined as &quot;force x distance&quot;; and was used to convey &quot;load x reps&quot;.</li>
 <li>Volume may be defined as &quot;load x time under tension&quot;, and was used to convey the total amount of time that work was performed on a load.</li>
</ul>
<ul></ul>
<table style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <h3>Author&apos;s Note: How Important is Repetition Tempo?</h3>
 The research investigating repetition tempo suggests that this acute variable is a secondary concern for most goals. Acute variables such as load and volume are often more strongly correlated with optimizing improvements and may dictate and/or allow for significant variability in tempo recommendations. For example, volume is likely more important for hypertrophy goals, suggesting that if sets are performed with repetitions-to-failure and each session is performed with the intent to iteratively increase volume, then slow, moderate, or maxV concentric tempos may be appropriate. The research does suggest that repetition tempo is a primary concern in optimizing training for peak velocity/power (explosive tempos are ideal), slower tempos are not appropriate for most maximal strength training goals, fast and explosive tempos are likely not ideal for volume dependent goals (endurance, hypertrophy, activation), and maxV tempos may be ideal for functional strength goals. The assertion that repetition tempo is a secondary concern both simplifies and complicates ideal repetition tempo recommendations. Although our recommendations include fewer goal-specific (unique) repetition tempos, these recommendations assume consideration will be given to the effect they have on more influential acute variables.
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

<h3>Repetition Tempo and Physiology</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Testosterone, Human Growth <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">Hormone</a> (HGH), Cortisol, and Creatine Kinase: A slower tempo may result in larger increases in testosterone, HGH, creatine kinase, larger decreases in cortisol, and potentially larger increases in cross-sectional area (CSA). However, studies also suggest that post-exercise changes in <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">Hormone</a> and enzyme levels may be less correlated with tempo and more strongly correlated with time-under-tension (volume).</li>
 <li>Protein Synthesis:&#xA0;These studies may imply that a slower tempo result in a larger increase in protein synthesis (and glycogen depletion); however, the study by Morton et al. suggests that tempo may be less influential than time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> and/or performing reps until failure.</li>
 <li>Blood Lactate: Slower tempos may result in larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate concentration when comparing work matched exercise routines; however, changes in blood lactate may be similar when sets are performed until failure despite differing workloads. Further, larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate concentration may be exhibited when work increases with similar time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>, for example, an increase in concentric contraction tempo with slow eccentric contractions tempos, or an increase in reps with an equal amount of time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>.</li>
 <li>Metabolic Risk Factors and Arterial Blood Flow: Resistance training is unlikely to have a significant effect on metabolic risk factors in healthy individuals; however, strength, hypertrophy, and basal arterial blood are likely to increase with high loads and faster tempos resulting in larger increases in basal arterial blood flow.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Repetition Tempo and Electromyographic Activity:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Load and Tempo
 <ul>
 <li>Magnitude of Activity:&#xA0;Initial and peak EMG activity is higher for faster tempos and heavier loads regardless of tempo; however, average EMG activity over the duration of a set may be higher with slower tempos.</li>
 <li>During a Set: EMG amplitude over the duration of a set decreases more when using larger loads and faster tempos, but EMG frequency may decrease more following a set to failure with a slower tempo and lighter loads.</li>
 <li>Correlations: Slower tempos may result in larger increases in glycogen depletion, and/or larger increases in protein synthesis; however, these changes are not correlated with EMG activity.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>EMG and Work Matched Routines: When total work (reps x load) is similar, slower tempos and longer time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> result in larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, post-exercise blood lactate concentrations, and potentially hypertrophy.</li>
 <li>EMG Activity and Volume Matched Routines: When time-under-tension is equal, additional work/set (reps x load) may increase EMG activity. Further, self-paced tempos may be faster than moderate tempos (2:0:2) but are likely to result in more work with similar time-under-tension (2:0:2).</li>
 <li>Tempo <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">Specific</a> Adaptations: Fast and explosive tempos may result in adaptations noted during activity that include an increase in peak <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, a decrease in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> latency, and a decrease in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> reaction time. However, these adaptations are unlikely to result in any increase post-exercise, resting EMG activity.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Repetition Tempo and Hypertrophy</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Cross-Sectional Area (CSA) and Work Matched Routines: Slower tempos result in larger increases in CSA when comparing work matched routines.</li>
 <li>CSA and Volume: Routines with different tempos, but similar volumes (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) are likely to result in similar improvements in CSA. Further, additional volume is likely to increase CSA (and strength), regardless of the repetition tempo performed.</li>
 <li>Reps until Failure: The majority of studies demonstrate that when sets are performed until failure, slow, moderate, and fast tempos result in similar changes in CSA (and strength). However, two studies contradict these findings, demonstrating that slower tempos result in larger increases in CSA (and strength). These studies by Shepstone et al. and Assis-Pereira et al. may imply that tempo results in significant differences when the tempos are very different (300-1000% difference in time under tension/rep), and/or that small differences in CSA require more <a id="sensitivity" data-tip="1227" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/sensitivity" class="glossary">sensitive</a> outcome measures to demonstrate statistical significance (e.g. mATPase histochemical analysis or ultrasound).</li>
 <li>Concentric Versus Eccentric Contractions: Unfortunately, the two studies available on this topic imply contradictory conclusions. One study demonstrated that larger improvements in CSA followed a routine of longer duration concentric contractions, and the other demonstrated larger improvements following a routine of faster eccentric contractions. Although performing both during a rep is possible, these studies likely imply that other factors such as force production/load (intensity) have a larger influence on CSA than repetition tempo or concentric versus eccentric contractions.</li>
 <li>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV): Compared to slow or moderate tempos, MaxV concentric contractions result in more improvement on outcome measures related to function and performance; however, improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA are likely similar.</li>
 <li>Preferential Hypertrophy of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">Muscle Fiber</a> Types
 <ul>
 <li>Similar Changes: These studies suggest that tempo has little if any influence on the preferential hypertrophy of <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">Muscle Fiber</a> types. However, these studies do suggest that strength training with non-explosive tempos results in hypertrophy characterized by increases in both type I and type II fiber CSA, larger increases in type II fiber CSA, and potentially a transition from type IIx to IIa fibers that results in increased type IIa fiber proportion.
 <ul>
 <li>Different, but probably not:&#xA0;Some studies have implied that larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">Muscle Fiber</a> CSA may result from slow concentric tempos when compared to slow eccentric tempos, larger increases in CSA and more type IIx to type IIa fiber transition may result from heavier loads (and faster tempos), and significant increases in time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> (volume) may result in larger increases in type II fiber CSA when compared to type I fiber CSA. Although these findings appear to imply preferential hypertrophy of <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">Muscle Fiber</a> types, it is as likely that they are different expressions of the same pattern of hypertrophy noted above, with some routines not achieving the same amount of hypertrophy; and therefore, statistical significance not being achieved for smaller magnitude measures (i.e. statistical significance was reached for type II fiber CSA, but was not for type I fiber CSA).</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Repetition Tempo and Strength</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Non-explosive (slow, moderate, and fast tempos): Most studies suggest that tempo does not have a significant influence on strength gains when exercise volume is similar. Further, there is evidence to suggest that non-explosive tempos are only influential when a slower tempo results in a significant increase in volume.</li>
 <li>Velocity-specific Strength Gains: Slower velocities may result in improvements in strength for a larger range of velocities,&#xA0;slower tempos that result in more time-under-tension may result in larger improvements in endurance, and faster tempos (maxV) may result in larger improvements in peak velocity.
 <ul>
 <li>Older Exercisers and Velocity-specific Strength Gains: Similar to younger exercisers, studies suggest that older exercisers performing faster tempo may exhibit faster and larger improvements in peak velocity and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> when compared to strength training with slower tempos.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644345985-glute-med.jpg" title="Monster walks with resistance for the gluteus maximus" alt="A gluteus maximus activation exercise">
<h3>Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Young Adults:&#xA0;Young adults performing a maxV concentric tempo, when compared to slow or moderate tempo, may exhibit larger improvements in 1RM strength, maximum lifting velocity, and maximal <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>.</li>
 <li>Older Individuals:&#xA0;When comparing slow, moderate and maxV concentric tempos, older participants may exhibit similar gains in strength and max strength;&#xA0;however, maxV concentric tempos are likely to result in larger improvements in peak velocity at various loads, peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and scores on a variety of functional tests including the short physical performance battery (SBBP), pan carry tests, sit-to-stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, timed up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, and 10-minute walk <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>.
 <ul>
 <li>Carry-over and Home Exercise Programs:&#xA0;Older individuals performing supervised resistance training with maxV tempos may benefit from improvements in carry-over post-training; and further, maxV tempos incorporated into home-exercise programs may improve maintenance of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> density and functional outcomes.&#xA0;</li>
 <li> Psychosocial Improvements: Older individuals performing maxV concentric tempos, when compared to slow and moderate tempos, may exhibit <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements in strength and functional outcomes, as well as <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements in life quality and satisfaction scores.&#xA0;</li>
 <li>MaxV Tempo Limits: Achieving <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> strength, <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and/or functional outcomes from maxV concentric tempos may be limited to individuals who are capable of adapting to and benefiting from higher intensity exercise. This may suggest there is a limit to recommending maxV concentric tempos based on age and/or functional capacity.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Repetition Tempo and Power</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Isokinetic Equipment:&#xA0;Resistance training with isokinetic equipment may be beneficial for improving strength and power; however, the tempo of isokinetic reps does not seem to have an effect on the magnitude of improvements.&#xA0;</li>
 <li>Healthy Adults:&#xA0;Research demonstrates conflicting outcomes and small differences between groups, suggesting that non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, fast) result in similar improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>. Further, the studies by Morrissey et al. and Usui et al. suggest that variables such as intensity, volume, or reps until failure have a stronger influence on improvements.&#xA0;</li>
 <li>Elite Athletes:&#xA0;Moderate and fast tempos (non-explosive) are likely to result in similar improvements in power; however, maxV tempos may be more beneficial for increasing strength.&#xA0;</li>
 <li>Older Adults: Fast and explosive tempos may result in significantly larger improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcomes for older adults; however, increases in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> may also be <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> to certain muscles (i.e. <a id="prime-mover" data-tip="1663" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prime-mover" class="glossary">prime movers</a>).</li>
 <li>Repetition Velocity: Resistance training with heavier loads is likely to result in larger improvements in strength and velocity with heavier loads; however, lighter loads and explosive velocities are likely to result in larger improvements in velocity at lighter loads, peak velocity, peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, jump height, sprint performance and mean propulsive velocity.</li>
 <li>What is the appropriate tempo for power:
 <ul>
 <li>Adult Exercisers and Athletes: Adult exercisers and athletes will attain similar benefits from resistance training with all non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, and fast tempos). This implies that adult exercisers and athletes should perform resistance training for strength with a tempo that is <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> for increasing strength and potentially volume (load x time-under-tension), and when they train for increased velocity the tempos should be explosive.</li>
 <li>Elderly Exercisers:&#xA0;Although <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise should be recommended with caution to reduce the risk of injury, incorporating maxV concentric tempos into resistance training may be best practice for an elderly population.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3>Very/Super Slow Training</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Comparing Volume Matched&#xA0;Routines: Very slow and super slow tempos may be <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> to moderate tempos for improving endurance; however, when routines are matched for volume (load x time-under-tension) increases in strength and endurance are similar.</li>
 <li>Load Over Super-slow Tempo:&#xA0;When sets are performed until failure, and/or loads are adjusted to match a predetermined rep range or volume, super slow and very slow tempos result in <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> increases in strength. </li>
</ul>
<h3>The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set&#xA0;Performance</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Repetition Tempo and 1-RM Strength: Imposing a slower tempo may significantly decrease 1-RM strength; this finding includes slower eccentric tempos with volitional concentric tempos.</li>
 <li>Repetition Tempo and Work Per Set: Faster tempos, including self-paced tempos, are likely to result in more total work per set (and potentially more post-exercise circulating IGF-1) when performing sets to failure with submaximal loads.</li>
</ul>

Physiology

Research has investigated repetition (rep) tempo and its effect on levels of post-exercise testosterone, human growth <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> (HGH), cortisol, and creatine kinase. Wilk et al. compared blood samples of 60 males with training experience (21-29 years old) taken before and after (immediately, 30 min., and 60 min.) a slow tempo (6:0:2) or a moderate tempo (2:0:2) during 5 sets of bench press to failure with 70% of 1-rep maximum (1-RM). The study demonstrated that the slower tempo increased the amount of time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>, as well as resulted in larger increases in testosterone, creatine kinase, and lactate. Both groups exhibited similar decreases in cortisol (1). Watanabe et al. investigated post-exercise <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> concentrations of 35 older men (59&#xA0; - 76 yo), comparing a moderate tempo (1:0:1) or a slow tempo (3:0:3) while performing a routine of knee extension and knee flexion for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 60 sec. rest between sets, and low-loads of 50% of 1RM. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar changes in post-exercise <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> concentrations (serum growth <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a>, plasma noradrenaline, and plasma cortisol); however, the slow tempo group exhibited larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate. Additionally, both groups exhibited similar increases in strength, but only the slower tempo group exhibited a significant increase in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> hypertrophy (2). Smilios et al. compared blood samples of 11 males immediately following each of 4 protocols including a control condition (no exercise), a fast tempo of 100% of maximum velocity (maxV), a moderate tempo of 70% of maxV, and a 70% of maxV tempo with 10% more volume. The routine included squats and leg press for 4 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 10-RM load, with 2 min. rest between sets. The results demonstrated that all tempos resulted in an increase in post-exercise testosterone and HGH when compared to controls; however, the testosterone and HGH levels were higher for the 70% of maxV groups, and were highest for the 70% maxV with 10% more volume group. Additionally, cortisol levels only reached statistically significant decreases for the 10% more volume group, and only the high-velocity group exhibited a significant decrease in vertical jump performance following the routine (3). This study may imply that volume (total time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) has a stronger influence on post-exercise <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> levels than rep speed. An RCT by Headley et al. compared&#xA0;post-exercise <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> and enzyme concentrations of 17 college-aged males following either a slow tempo (4:0:2) or moderate tempo (2:0:2) with 1 min. rest between sets and the following protocols: 4 reps at 55% of&#xA0;1RM; 5 reps at 60% of 1RM; 6 reps at 65% of&#xA0;1RM; and a final set of reps until failure of 75% of 1RM. The moderate tempo (2:0:2) resulted in more total reps and total work (distance bar traveled) performed on the 4th set; however, both groups exhibited similar increases in testosterone, HGH, creatine kinase, and lactase, and similar changes in cortisol. The one exception was IGF-1 which was higher for the moderate tempo (2:0:2) group. Note, it is possible that the additional work performed in the final set of the moderate tempo (2:0:2) group resulted in a similar time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> as the slow tempo (4:0:2) group (4). These studies suggest that a slower tempo may result in larger increases in testosterone, HGH, creatine kinase, larger decreases in cortisol, and potentially larger increases in cross-sectional area (CSA). However, studies also suggest that post-exercise changes in <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> and enzyme levels may be less correlated with tempo and more strongly correlated with time-under-tension (volume).
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644608056-istock-539114870.jpg" title="The deadlift exercise, targeting lower body strength" alt="A deadlift exercise being performed by a weighlifter">

Two studies were located investigating the effects of tempo on protein synthesis. Burd et al. compared <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> biopsies of 8 men (24 &#xB1; 1 years) following <a id="unilateral" data-tip="1551" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/unilateral" class="glossary">unilateral</a> knee extensions with one leg performing reps until failure, with a 30% of 1-RM load, and a slow tempo (6:0:6), and the other leg performing the same number of reps, with the same load, at a fast tempo (1:0:1). Each leg completed 3 sets with 2 min. rest between sets. This study demonstrated that both slow and moderate tempos resulted in an increase in protein synthesis; however, the slower tempo group exhibited larger increases (5). A study by Morton et al. compared <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> biopsies of 10 recreationally trained young men performing leg extensions with 4 different protocols: 80% of 1-RM with a moderate tempo (1:1:1), 80% of 1-RM with a slow tempo&#xA0; (3:1:3), 30% of 1-RM with a moderate tempo (1:1:1), and 30% of 1-RM with a moderates tempo (3:1:3). Each protocol included 3 sets with reps performed until failure, and 3 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated no significant differences in glycogen depletion or protein synthesis despite the differences in load, <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, total reps, and time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>. Note, all of the protocols in this study included reps performed until failure, which likely resulted in significant and similar training volumes (time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> x load) (6). These studies may imply that a slower tempo results in a larger increase in protein synthesis (and glycogen depletion); however, the study by Morton et al. suggests that tempo may be less influential than time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> and/or performing reps until failure.

Several studies have compared post-exercise blood lactate concentrations following work matched exercise routines with various tempos. As mentioned above, Watanabe et al. compared blood lactate accumulation following a slow tempo (3:0:3) or moderate tempo (1:0:1), demonstrating that the slow tempo resulted in a larger increase in blood lactate (2). Another study by Watanabe et al. compared 18 older men (60&#xA0; - 77 yo) performing work matched routines with either a moderate tempo (1:1:1) or slow tempo (3:1:3) of knee extensions and knee flexions for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 60 sec. rest between sets, with very low-loads (30% 1RM). The findings demonstrated that the groups exhibited similar increases in systolic blood pressure during exertion and similar increases in strength following the training period; however, the slow rep group exhibited larger average increases in EMG activity, higher levels of post-exercise blood lactate, and only the slower rep group exhibited increases in CSA (9). A study by Martins-Costa et al. compared 15 recreationally trained males following a bench press routine with either a moderate tempo (2:0:2) or a slow tempo (2:0:4), with intensity-matched routines performed for 3 sets, 6 reps/set, 3 min. rest between sets, with 60% of 1-RM load. The findings demonstrated that the slower tempo resulted in larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity and blood lactate levels (10). These studies demonstrate that slower tempos and longer time-under-tension result in larger post-exercise blood lactate concentrations (and potentially hypertrophy) when comparing work matched exercise routines; however, changes in blood lactate may be similar when sets are performed until failure despite differing workloads .
Additional studies have compared blood lactate concentrations following exercise routines with various tempos and volumes (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>).&#xA0;&#xA0;Also mentioned above, Headley demonstrated that a slow tempo (4:0:2) and a moderate tempo (2:0:2) resulted in similar post-exercise blood lactate concentrations; however, in this study the last of 4 sets was performed until failure, potentially reducing differences in the volume of activity (4). Lacerda et al. compared 22 males (18 - 30 yo) with at least 6-months of resistance training experience, following the performance of a time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> matched protocol of either 6 reps at a slow tempo (3:0:3) or 12 reps at a moderate tempo (1.5:0:1.5) during smith machine bench press for 3 sets, with 3 min. rest between sets, and 60% 1RM load. The findings demonstrated the more rep/faster tempo group exhibited larger increases in blood lactate accumulation and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity (9). Gonzalez-Badillo et al. compared 20 individuals performing a maxV concentric tempo or a 1/2 maxV concentric tempo during an otherwise identical bench press protocol for 6 weeks, 3x/week. The findings demonstrated that post-exercise blood lactate levels were higher for the maxV group, but blood ammonia levels were similar for both groups. Additionally, the maxV group exhibited larger improvements in 1-RM strength and max velocity at all loads (10). Mazzetti et al. compared 9 men (20 &#xB1; 2.5 yr) performing 3 different protocols including a moderate tempo (2:0:2), explosive concentric tempo (2:0:0), or a higher load explosive concentric tempo (2:0:0) during smith machine plate-loaded squats for 4 sets, 8 reps/set, 90 sec. rest between sets and 60% or 80% of 1-RM. The findings demonstrated that blood lactate was highest for the moderate tempo group, despite the explosive tempo groups expending more energy (11). These studies may imply that changes in blood lactate may be similar when sets are performed until failure despite differing workloads. Further, larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate concentration may be exhibited when work increases with similar time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>, for example, an increase in concentric contraction tempo with slow eccentric contractions tempos, or an increase in reps with an equal amount of time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>.
<img title="Striations in muscle cells, also showing the nucleus in the tissues as well" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649648031-muscle-tissue.jpg" alt="An image of striations of the muscle cells in the body">
<table style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>
 <h3>Arterial Blood Flow and Metabolic Risk Factors</h3>
 An RCT by Tanimoto et al. (2009) compared 36 young men performing either 55&#x2013;60% of 1RM and a slow tempo (3:0:3), or 85-90% of 1RM with a fast tempo (1:1:1) during a resistance training routine (vertical squat, chest press, latissimus dorsi pull-down, abdominal bend, and back extension) for 13 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 RM/set, and 60 sec. rest between sets. The findings indicate that all metabolic risk factors were within clinically normal levels at the beginning of the study and did not change following the study, including brachial blood pressure, cardiac output, systemic vascular resistance, ankle-brachial index, fasting plasma concentrations of total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and fasting glucose. However, both groups exhibited similar increases in strength and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a>, and basal femoral blood flow increased by nearly double for the higher load/fast tempo group (12). This study suggests that 13 weeks of resistance training is unlikely to have a significant effect on metabolic risk factors in healthy individuals; however, strength, hypertrophy, and basal arterial blood are likely to increase with high loads and faster tempos resulting in larger increases in basal arterial blood flow.
 </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity

Several studies comparing tempos have included <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity as an outcome measure. In a study mentioned above, Morton et al. compared leg extensions to failure with 80% of 1-RM and a moderate tempo (1:1:1), 80% of 1-RM and a slow tempo (3:1:3), 30% of 1-RM and a moderate tempo (1:1:1), or 30% of 1-RM and a moderate tempo (3:1:3). The findings demonstrated that heavier loads resulted in greater initial and peak EMG activity; however, lighter loads often resulted in higher average EMG activity during the duration of a set. Further, EMG activity was not correlated with increases in glycogen depletion or protein synthesis (6). An RCT by Tanimato et al. (2006) compared the effects of tempo and intensity on 24 young male novice exercisers performing knee extensions for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 8 RM/set, with 50% of 1-RM and a slow tempo (3:1:3), 80% of 1-RM and a fast tempo (1:1:1), or 50% of 1-RM and a fast tempo (1:1:1). The findings of the study demonstrated that strength and cross-sectional area (CSA) increased for the slow rep group and the high load group, but did not increase significantly for the low load and fast tempo group, implying a relationship between volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) and hypertrophy. The most deoxygenation of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> tissue and sustained increase in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity resulted from the slow tempo protocol (13). Sakamoto et al. compared the EMG activity of the pectoralis major, deltoid, and triceps of 13 weight-trained men (21.7 &#xB1; 3.6 yo) during five different intensities (40&#x2013;80% 1RM) and four tempos (slow 5.6 sec/rep, medium 2.8 sec/rep, fast 1.9 sec/rep, and explosive reps) following a set of bench press to failure. The findings demonstrated EMG activity was higher for all muscles during heavier loads and faster tempos, both during and immediately following exercise. EMG amplitude declined more over the duration of a set with heavier loads and faster tempos; however, EMG frequency declined similarly for all tempos. Further, EMG activity was lowest following lighter loads to failure, which may imply lighter loads and more time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> results in greater <a id="nervous-system" data-tip="1690" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nervous-system" class="glossary">nervous system</a> fatigue (14). In summary, initial and peak EMG activity is higher for faster tempos and heavier loads regardless of tempo; however, average EMG activity over the duration of a set may be higher with slower tempos. EMG amplitude over the duration of a set decreases more when using larger loads and faster tempos, but EMG frequency may decrease more following a set to failure with a slower tempo and lighter loads. Last, slower tempos may result in larger increases in glycogen depletion, and/or larger increases in protein synthesis; however, these changes are not correlated with EMG activity.
<img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649792750-push-up.png" title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstarting push-ups with resistance" alt="Push-ups with a resistance band to increase the difficulty">

<h4>Repetition Tempo, EMG Activity, and Work Matched Routines</h4>
Two previously mentioned studies compared EMG activity following routines using different tempos but similar total work (reps x load). Watanabe et al. compared a routine&#xA0;of knee extension and knee flexion exercises with either a moderate tempo (1:1:1) or a slow tempo (3:1:3) and very low-loads (30% 1RM) for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, and 60 sec. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that the slower rep group exhibited higher average increases in EMG activity, higher levels of post-exercise blood lactate, and only the slower rep group exhibited increases in CSA (7). Similarly, a study by Martins-Costa et al. compared 15 recreationally trained males following a bench press protocol with either a moderate tempo (2:0:2) or a slow tempo (2:0:4), 3 sets, 6 reps/set, 3 min. rest between sets, and a 60% of 1-RM load. The findings demonstrated that the slower tempo resulted in larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity and blood lactate levels (8). These studies demonstrate that when total work (reps x load) is similar, slower tempos and longer time-under-tension result in larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, post-exercise blood lactate concentrations, and potentially hypertrophy.
<h4>Repetition Tempo, EMG Activity, and Volume Matched Routines</h4>
Additionally, two studies compared EMG activity following routines using different tempos but similar total volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>). In a study mentioned above, Lacerda et al. compared 22 college-aged males (18 - 30 yo) with at least 6 months of resistance training experience, performing either 6 reps at a slow tempo (3:0:3) or 12 reps at a moderate tempo (1.5:0:1.5) during smith machine bench press for 3 sets, with 3 min. rest between sets, and 60% 1RM load. The findings demonstrated that approximately 12-minutes after the protocol, the more reps/faster tempo group exhibited larger increases in blood lactate and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity (9). Nobrega et al. used a randomized cross-over design to compare leg extensions with a moderate (2:0:2) tempo or self-paced tempo (faster: mean 2.6 +/- 0.95 sec/rep) for 3 sets, 60-sec rest between sets, and 80% 1-RM. The findings demonstrated that the moderate tempo (2:0:2) group exhibited greater initial time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> per set; however, both groups exhibited similar time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> per session. The self-paced tempo (and faster) group performed more reps/set, more reps/session, and exhibited higher quadriceps EMG activity during exercise (15). These studies may suggest that when time-under-tension is equal, additional work/set (reps x load) may increase EMG activity. Further, self-paced tempos may be faster than moderate tempos (2:0:2) but are likely to result in more work with similar time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> (2:0:2).
<img title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a netural grip chest press" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649356818-chest-press.png" alt="A neutral grip chest press">

A few studies investigating EMG activity and tempos suggest that there may be tempo-specific adaptations. A study by Coburn et al. compared 30 adult women performing a slow tempo of 30 degrees/second or a fast tempo of 270 degrees/second during leg extensions following 3 sessions, of 4 sets, of 10 RM/set. The findings demonstrated that the slower tempo group exhibited improvements in strength at the slow and fast tempo; whereas, the faster tempo group only exhibited strength gains at the faster tempo. Further, neither group exhibited post-training changes in quadriceps EMG activity; however, the faster tempo group exhibited a small increase in vastus lateralis activity during re-assessment of strength at the faster tempo (16). An RCT by Correa et al. compared older women (age 67&#xB1;5 years)&#xA0;who performed 6-weeks (2 x/week, 8 - 12 RM) of traditional resistance training (leg press, knee extension, and knee flexion exercises) followed by another 6-weeks of either traditional resistance training, high-speed concentric contraction training (2:0:maxV), or a group that replaced the leg press with <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops.&#xA0;Following the first 6-weeks of training, all participants exhibited significant increases in maximal dynamic strength, maximal activation, and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> thickness for the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis and rectus femoris, as well as improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> onset latency, reaction time, and the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>. All groups exhibited further improvements following the 6-weeks in different training groups; however, the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops group exhibited significantly larger improvements for the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, countermovement jump performance, EMG activity of the vastus lateralis&#xA0;and&#xA0;vastus medialis, <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> latency, and reaction times (17). These studies suggest that fast and explosive tempos may result in adaptations noted during activity that include an increase in peak <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, a decrease in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> latency, and a decrease in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> reaction time. Note, these adaptations are unlikely to result in any increase in post-exercise, resting EMG activity. These studies may be alluding to fast/explosive tempo <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> adaptations and alterations to <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> EMG activity, which would be congruent with research on &quot;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/introduction-power-training-high-velocity-training" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Power (High-Velocity) Training</a>&quot;.
<img title="The box jump exercise used to improve lower body power" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649512741-boxjump-1.jpeg" alt="A box jump exercise">

Cross-sectional Area (CSA): Note, in the following paragraphs it is presumed that cross-sectional area (CSA) is an objective measure of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> hypertrophy.

Hypertrophy

<h4>Comparing Work Matched Routines</h4>
Studies have investigated the effect of repetition (rep) tempo on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA with work matched routines (same load x reps). As mentioned above, Watanabe et al. (2013) compared 35 older men (59&#xA0; - 76 yo) performing a moderate tempo (1:0:1) or a slower tempo (3:0:3) during a work matched (reps x load) routine of knee extension and knee flexion exercises for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 60 sec. rest between sets, and low-load 50% of 1RM. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar changes in post-exercise <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> concentrations (serum growth <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a>, plasma noradrenaline, and plasma cortisol); however, only the slower tempo group exhibited a significant increase in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA (2). Another study by Watanabe et al. (2014) compared 18 older men (60&#xA0; - 77 yo) performing a moderate tempo (1:1:1) or slower tempo (3:1:3) during very low-load (30% of 1RM) work matched routines of knee extension and knee flexion exercises for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 60 sec. rest between sets. Again, only the slower rep group exhibited increases in CSA (7). These studies suggest that routines with different tempos, but similar volumes (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) are likely to result in similar improvements in CSA.
<img title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a single leg box jump" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649512881-hop-to-single-leg-jump.png" alt="Single leg box jump">
<h4>Repetition Tempo and the Influence of Volume</h4>
Two studies were located comparing the effect of tempo on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA when time-under-tension was matched. An RCT by Marzilger et al. compared 47 participants performing an eccentric knee extension protocol following 33 sessions, 3x/week, 5 sets/session, with reps (3, 8, 14, and 20 reps/set) dictated by matching time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> for tempos of 45, 120, 210, and 300&#xB0;/second. The findings demonstrated significant but similar increases in strength and CSA (hypertrophy) for all groups (18). Peterson et al. compared 30 male varsity athletes performing a slower tempo (1.05 rad/second) or a faster tempo (3.14 rad/second) during a resistance training program including 6 hydraulic machines for 6 weeks, 3x/week, completing either 2 sets (weeks 1-2) or 3 sets (weeks 3-6) in a circuit, with 2, 20-sec bouts of maximal exertion/set. The findings suggested that the slower tempo group exhibited strength gains at all tested velocities; whereas the faster tempo group only exhibited strength gains at higher velocities, and both groups exhibited similar changes in the quadriceps CSA (19). These studies may suggest that increases in CSA will be similar if total time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> is similar, implying that tempo may be less influential on CSA than time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>.
Two studies were located comparing the effects of tempo and differences in training volume on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA. An RCT by Munn et al. divided 115 healthy, untrained subjects into 4 groups performing either slow (3:0:3) or moderate (1:0:1) tempos, and either 1 set/session or 3 sets/session, of preacher curls with progressive resistance for 18 sessions on non-consecutive days, over 6-7 weeks, with 6-8 reps/set (to failure). The results demonstrated that arm circumference increased similarly for all groups; however, 1 set at a moderate tempo increased strength more than 1 set at a slow tempo, 3 sets/session increased strength by nearly twice as much as 1 set, and strength gains were similar when a slow tempo or moderate tempo was performed for 3 sets (20). As mentioned above, an RCT by Tanimoto et al. (2006) compared 24 young male novice exercisers performing a slow tempo (3:1:3) with 50% of 1-RM, a moderate tempo (1:1:1) with 80% of 1-RM, or a moderate tempo (1:1:1) with 50% of 1-RM of knee extensions for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, and 8 RM/set. The findings demonstrated that strength and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA increased for the slow tempo group and the high load group, but did not increase for the low load and fast tempo group (13). These studies suggest additional volume is likely to increase CSA (and strength), regardless of the repetition tempo performed. Although the study by Munn et al. did not report statistically significant differences in arm CSA, some consideration should be given to the 3 sets groups exhibiting twice the strength gains, which may result in larger increases in CSA following longer training periods.

Comparing Work Matched Routines and Volume Matched Routines

The effect of tempo on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA has also been compared when performing reps to volitional failure during each set. As mentioned above, an RCT by Tanimoto et al. (2009) compared 36 young men performing a &quot;low intensity&quot; routine of 55&#x2013;60% of 1RM and a slow tempo (3:0:3) to a &quot;high intensity&quot; routine of 85-90% of 1RM and moderate tempo (1:1:1) (routine included vertical squat, chest press, latissimus dorsi pull-down, abdominal bend, and back extension) for 13 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 RM/set, and 60 sec. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that strength and CSA increased similarly for both groups; despite, basal femoral blood flow increasing by nearly twice as much for the high-intensity group (12). Claflin et al. compared younger and older, men and women, performing either a moderate tempo or fast tempo during 14 weeks of a progressive resistance training program, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 10 reps/set, and 10 RM load (weights were increased by a trainer every 2 weeks to maintain 10RM loads). The tempos for leg press were 30-90&#xB0;/second for the slow tempo and 250-350&#xB0;/sec for the fast tempo, and the tempo for resisted hip flexion was 20-40&#xB0;/second for the slow tempo and 100-160&#xB0;/sec for the fast tempo. The results of this study demonstrated that strength and quadriceps CSA increased similarly for both sexes, age groups, and for both slow and fast tempos (21). Shepstone et al. compared the arms of 12 young men (23.8 &#xB1; 2.4 yo) performing isokinetic curls with a fast tempo (3.66 rad/sec.) with one arm, and a slow tempo (0.35 rad/sec) with the other, for 8 weeks, 3 days/week, progressing from 1 - 4 sets/session, with 3 min. rest between sets, and 10 reps/set (to failure). The findings demonstrated that a faster tempo (moderate tempo) resulted in greater force production, improvements in strength, and type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> hypertrophy as indicated by mATPase histochemical analysis. Note, the study used two tempos that were different by an order of magnitude (3.66 rad/sec. to 0.35 rad/sec), and the difference in arm CSA still did not reach statistical significance (22). Assis-Pereira et al. compared 12 healthy adults performing the Scott curl exercise with a slow tempo (4:0:1) or a moderate tempo (1:0:1) for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/session, and 8 RM/set (to failure). The findings of this study demonstrated that strength and biceps brachii CSA (measured with ultrasound) increased more following the slower tempo protocol (23). The majority of these studies demonstrate that when sets are performed until failure, slow, moderate, and fast tempos result in similar changes in CSA (and strength). However, two studies contradict these findings, demonstrating that slower tempos result in larger increases in CSA (and strength). These studies by Shepstone et al. (22) and Assis-Pereira et al. (23) may imply that tempo results in significant differences when the tempos are very different (300-1000% difference in time under tension/rep), and/or that small differences in CSA require more <a id="sensitivity" data-tip="1227" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/sensitivity" class="glossary">sensitive</a> outcome measures to demonstrate statistical significance (e.g. mATPase histochemical analysis or ultrasound).
<img title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a hip bridge progression" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644608952-ultimate-glute-bridge.png" alt="A hip bridge variation for gluteus maximus strength">

The tempo of <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> contraction phases (concentric vs eccentric) may influence <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA. Gillies et al. compared 28 women (mean age 24.3 &#xB1; 1.1 year) with strength training experience performing either a long concentric contraction (2:0:6) or a long eccentric contraction (6:0:2) during a routine of 4 lower body exercises (leg press, parallel squat, knee extension, and knee flexion) for 9 weeks, 3 sessions/week, 2 sets/exercise, 2.5 min. rest between sets, and 6-8 RM/set. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited increases in strength, type Ia <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and a significant transition from Type IIx to IIa myosin chains; however, the long concentric group exhibited larger increases in strength and type IA <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, larger increases in type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and larger increases in 24-hour urinary cortisol (24). An RCT by Farthing et al. compared 24 untrained volunteers (age 18-36 years) performing curls for 8 weeks. The protocol included 12 sessions (4 weeks) of 3x/week, 2-6 sets/session, and 8RM/set, followed by another 12 sessions (4 weeks) of either concentric only contractions, eccentric only contractions, a slow tempo of 30&#xB0;/sec, or a fast tempo of 180&#xB0;/sec. (4 testing conditions) for 6 sets/session with 6-8 RM/set. The findings demonstrated that CSA increased more following eccentric contractions when compared to concentric contractions, and faster contractions when compared to slower contractions. Note, this study used isokinetic equipment and the findings should not be interpreted as &quot;larger increases in CSA can be achieved from fast eccentrics, or allowing free weights to fall&quot;; however, this study does suggest more CSA may be anticipated from focusing on the eccentric deceleration of loads at faster tempos (25). Unfortunately, the two studies available on this topic imply contradictory conclusions. One study demonstrated that larger improvements in CSA followed a routine of longer duration concentric contractions, and the other demonstrated larger improvements following a routine of faster eccentric contractions. Although performing both during a rep is possible, these studies likely imply that other factors such as force production/load (intensity) have a larger influence on CSA than repetition tempo or concentric versus eccentric contractions.

Several studies have compared CSA following routines with a maximum voluntary concentric tempo (MaxV). Reid et al. compared older adults (65-94 yo) performing a maxV concentric tempo (2:1:maxV) or a moderate tempo (2:1:2) during a routine of leg press and knee extensions for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, with 70% of 1RM load. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in strength and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> following the routine, without a significant increase in thigh <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA (26). <span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">An RCT by Hisaeda et al. compared 17 participants performing a maxV concentric contraction, or a moderate and constant contraction speed, during elbow flexion and extension exercises for 8 weeks, 4x week, 6 sets/session, 10 reps/set, 50% of 1-RM, with 30 sec. rest between sets. The findings suggest that the maxV concentric tempo trended toward larger improvements in strength and CSA, but statistical significance was not reached (27). Young et al. compared 18 experienced male subjects performing a slow eccentric tempo and a maxV concentric tempo, or a slow eccentric and a slow concentric tempo, during a routine of half-squats for&#xA0; 7.5 weeks, 3x/week, 4 sets/session, 3 min. rest between sets, 8-12 reps/set, with 8-12 RM load.&#xA0; The findings suggest that improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA were similar for both groups; however, there was evidence of velocity-specific strength gains (28). Nogueira et al. compared 20 older men (69 - 76 yo) performing a maxV concentric tempo (2-3:0:maxV) or a slow tempo (2-3:0:2-3) during a full-body resistance training routine (leg press, chest press, seated row, knee extension, knee flexion, tricep press downs, and bicep curls) for 10 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 90 sec. rest between sets, with a light load of 40-60% 1RM. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar gains in strength; however, the maxV group exhibited larger improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> and larger increases in rectus femoris<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;and&#xA0;bicep brachii<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;"> CSA (29). Last, a previously mentioned RCT by Correa et al. compared older women (age 67&#xB1;5 years) who performed 6-weeks (2x/week, 8 - 12 RM) of traditional resistance training (leg press, knee extension, and knee flexion exercises) followed by another 6-weeks of either traditional resistance training, maxV concentric contraction training (2:0:maxV), or replacing the leg press with <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops.&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">Following the first 6-weeks of training, all participants exhibited significant increases in maximal dynamic strength, maximal activation, and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> thickness for the vastus lateralis<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">, vastus medialis,<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;"> and rectus femoris<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">, as well as improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> onset latency, reaction time, and the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>. All groups exhibited further improvements following 6-weeks in different groups; however, the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops group exhibited significantly larger improvements for the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, countermovement jump performance, EMG activity of the vastus lateralis<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;and&#xA0;vastus medialis<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">, <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> latency, and reaction times (17). These studies imply that when compared to slow or moderate tempos, MaxV concentric contractions result in more improvement on outcome measures related to function and performance; however, improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA are likely similar.<img title="Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a dumbbell chest press exercise" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649713391-dumbbell-chest-press.jpg" alt="A dumbbell chest press exericse">

Research has investigated the effects of repetition (rep) tempo on <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> type hypertrophy and fiber type ratios.&#xA0;Coyle et al. compared college-aged males performing time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> matched protocols of either 5 sets of 6 RM at 60&#xB0;/sec, 5 sets of 12 RM at 300&#xB0;/sec, or 2-3 sets of each protocol/session, during two-legged isokinetic knee extensions for 6 weeks, 3x/week. The findings demonstrated that each group exhibited velocity-specific increases in peak <a id="torque" data-tip="1294" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/torque" class="glossary">torque</a>, and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> biopsy demonstrated that all groups exhibited similar increases in type II fiber CSA without increases in type I fiber CSA or thigh circumference (30). As mentioned above, Claflin et al. compared younger and older, men and women, performing a&#xA0;moderate tempo or a fast tempo during 14 weeks of a progressive resistance training program, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 10 reps/set, with 10 RM loads (weights were increased by a trainer every 2 weeks to maintain loads at a 10RM).&#xA0;The findings demonstrated that strength and quadriceps CSA increased similarly for both sexes, age groups, and for both fast and slow tempos. Interestingly, hypertrophy was only significant for type II fibers, and not type 1 fibers (21). A study by Ewing et al. investigated 20 young men performing&#xA0;8 reps to failure at a slower tempo&#xA0;(60&#xB0;/sec), or 20 reps to failure at a moderate tempo (240&#xB0;/sec) of isokinetic knee flexion and knee extension exercises for 10 weeks, 3x/week, and 3 sets/exercise.&#xA0;The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in strength without significant increases in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, no change in fiber type proportion, and significant increases in type I and IIa fiber area without an increase in type IIx fiber area (31). These studies suggest that tempo has little, if any influence on the preferential hypertrophy of <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> types. However, these studies do suggest that strength training with non-explosive tempos results in hypertrophy characterized by increases in both type I and type II fiber CSA, larger increases in type II fiber CSA, and potentially a transition from type IIx to IIa fibers that results in increased type IIa fiber proportion.
Contrary to the studies above, there is some evidence that tempo may influence hypertrophy, and potentially have a larger influence on <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> fiber types. As mentioned above, Gillies et al. compared 28 women (mean age 24.3 &#xB1; 1.1 yo) with strength training experience performing either a long concentric contraction (2:0:6) or a long eccentric contraction (6:0:2) during a routine of 4 lower body exercises (leg press, parallel squat, knee extension, and knee flexion) for 9 weeks, 3 sessions/week, 2 sets/exercise, 2.5 min. rest between sets, and 6-8 RM/set (to failure). The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited increases in strength, type Ia <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and a significant transition from Type IIx to IIa myosin chains; however, the long concentric group exhibited larger increases in strength and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and only the long concentric group exhibited significant increases in type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA. (24). Shepstone et al. compared the arms of 12 young men (23.8 &#xB1; 2.4 yo) performing isokinetic curls with one arm performing a fast tempo (3.66 rad/sec.), and the other arm performing a slow tempo (0.35 rad/sec), for 8 weeks, 3 days/week, progressing from 1 - 4 sets/session, with 3 min. rest between sets, and 10 reps/set (to failure). The findings demonstrated that the faster tempo resulted in a larger increase in force production, strength, and type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> hypertrophy (as indicated by mATPase histochemical analysis) (22). An RCT by Schuenke et al. compared 34&#xA0;untrained women performing&#xA0;6-10 reps/set of 85% of 1-RM and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), to 20-30 reps/set of 40-60% of 1RM and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), and 6-10 reps/set with 40-60% of 1-RM and a very slow tempo (4:0:10),&#xA0;following 6-weeks of lower-body resistance training&#xA0;(leg press, squats, and knee extensions), with a frequency of 2x/week for week 1, 3x/week for weeks 2-6, 3 sets/exercise, with 2 min. rest between sets.&#xA0;The findings demonstrated that all groups exhibited an increase in type I and type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and the increases in CSA were larger for type IIa fibers than type I fibers. Additionally, the 85% of 1-RM group exhibited an increase in type IIa fiber proportion, and the super slow tempo group only exhibited a significant increase in type II fiber CSA without a significant change in type I fiber CSA (32). In summary, larger increases in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA may result from slow concentric tempos when compared to slow eccentric tempos, larger increases in CSA and more type IIx to type IIa fiber transition may result from heavier loads (and faster tempos), and significant increases in time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> (volume) may result in larger increases in type II fiber CSA when compared to type I fiber CSA. Although these findings appear to imply preferential hypertrophy of <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> types, it is as likely that they are different expressions of the same pattern of hypertrophy noted above, with some protocols not achieving the same amount of hypertrophy; and therefore, statistical significance is not achieved for smaller magnitude measures (i.e. statistical significance was reached for type II fiber CSA, but was not for type I fiber CSA).

Repetition Tempo and Strength

The effect non-explosive (slow, moderate, and fast) tempos have on improvements in strength has been compared with time-under-tension matched, work matched, volume matched, and reps-to-failure matched protocols. Note, explosive tempos and very/super-slow tempos are discussed below in separate paragraphs. Two studies have compared tempos when volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) is similar. As mentioned above, an RCT by Marzilger et al. compared 47 participants performing eccentric knee extension protocols following 33 sessions, 3x/week, 5 sets/session, with reps (3, 8, 14, and 20 reps/set) dictated by matching time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> for tempos of 45, 120, 210, and 300&#xB0;/second. The findings demonstrated significant but similar increases in strength and cross-sectional area (CSA) for all groups (18). An RCT by Pereira et al. compared 14 participants (18 to 37 years old) performing a slow tempo of 25&#xB0;/sec, or a fast tempo of 100&#xB0;/sec, during smith machine bench press and smith machine squats, with 6 additional exercises at a speed of the participants choice (pull-up, hip adduction, hip abduction, elbow flexion, plantar flexion, sit-ups), for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 1 set/exercise, 1 min. rest between sets, 8-10 RM/set. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar gains in strength for the smith machine bench press and squat at both speeds, without significant changes in lean mass, fat mass, or BMI (33). These studies suggest that tempo does not have a significant influence on strength gains when exercise volume is similar.
Additional studies have investigated the effect of tempo when the volume of exercise is not matched. Usui et al. compared 16 healthy young men performing a moderate tempo (1:1:1) and a slow tempo (1:0:3) during a work matched routine of squats for 8 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 10 reps/set, 1 min. rest between sets, and 50% 1RM loads. Findings demonstrated that the slow tempo group exhibited significant improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> thickness, squat strength, hip extension strength, and vertical jump height, and the moderate tempo group failed to reach statistically significant changes (34). Assis-Pereira et al. compared 12 healthy adults performing the Scott curl exercise with a slow tempo (4:0:1) or a moderate tempo (1:0:1) during a work matched routine of 12 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/session, and 8 RM/set (to failure). The findings of this study demonstrated that strength and CSA (measured with ultrasound) increased more following the slower tempo routine (23). An RCT by Munn et al. divided 115 healthy, untrained subjects into 4 groups performing either slow (3:0:3) or moderate (1:0:1) tempos, with either 1 set/session or 3 sets/session, during a routine of preacher curls with progressive resistance for 18 sessions on non-consecutive days, over 6-7 weeks, with 6-8 RM/set (to failure). The results demonstrated that arm circumference increased similarly for all groups; however, 1 set at a moderate tempo increased strength more than 1 set at a slow tempo, 3 sets/session increased strength by nearly twice as much a 1 set, and strength gains were similar when a slow tempo or moderate tempo was performed for 3 sets (20). The study by Munn et al. (20) may be the clearest demonstration that larger improvements in strength are the result of significant increases in volume (often 2 - 3 times the amount of time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>), and that non-explosive tempos are only influential when a slower tempo results in a significant increase in volume.

There is evidence that tempo may be correlated with velocity <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> improvements in strength. Peterson et al. compared 30 male varsity athletes performing a slower tempo (1.05 rad/second) or a faster tempo (3.14 rad/second) during a resistance training program including 6 hydraulic machines for 6 weeks, 3x/week, completing either 2 sets (weeks 1-2) or 3 sets (weeks 3-6) in a circuit, with 2 bouts of 20 sec. with maximal exertion/set. The findings suggested that the slower tempo group exhibited strength gains at all tested velocities; whereas the faster tempo group only exhibited strength gains at higher velocities (35). Young et al. compared 18 experienced male subjects performing a slow eccentric tempo and a maxV concentric tempo, or a slow eccentric and a slow concentric tempo, during a routine of half-squats for 7.5 weeks, 3x/week, 4 sets/session, 3 min. rest between sets, 8-12 reps/set, with 8-12 RM load. The findings suggest that improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> CSA were similar for both groups; however, maximal isometric strength improved more for the slower rep group and maximal rep velocity improved more for the maxV contraction group (36). Rana et al. compared 24 healthy adult females, split into 4 groups including 1 control group performing no exercise, a traditional strength training protocol of 6-10 RM/set (until failure) and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), a high rep training protocol of 20-30 RM/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), and a very slow velocity training protocol of 6-10 RM/set (until failure) with a very slow tempo (4:0:10). Each protocol was performed during a lower-body resistance training routine (leg press, back squats, and knee extensions) for 6 weeks, 3 sets/exercise, with 3-5 min. rest between sets. The findings indicated that the 6-10 reps/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2) exhibited the largest improvements in strength, and the higher rep and slower tempo groups exhibited similar improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> endurance (37). These studies demonstrate slower velocities may result in improvements in strength for a larger range of velocities, slower tempos that result in more time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a> may result in larger improvements in endurance, and faster tempos (maxV) may result in larger improvements in peak velocity.
Older exercisers may exhibit similar velocity <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> strength adaptations when comparing strength training with non-explosive tempos. An RCT by Marsh et al. compared 45 older adults (74.8 &#xB1; 5.7 yr) with self-reported difficulty in common daily activities, performing a moderate tempo (2-3:0:2-3) or maxV concentric tempo (2-3:0:maxV) during leg press and knee extension exercises for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 8-10 reps/set, 1-2 min. rest between sets, and 70% 1RM loads. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in strength, but the maxV group exhibited larger improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (38). An RCT by Fielding et al. compared 30 elderly women (72-74 yo) with self-reported difficulties performing tasks of daily living, following the performance of a moderate tempo (2:0:2) or maxV concentric tempo (2:0:maxV) during leg press and knee extension exercises for 16 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 8-10 reps/set, and 70% 1RM loads. The findings demonstrated that <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> strength improved similarly for both groups; however, the maxV group exhibited faster increases in knee extension <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (groups were similar at the end of training), and larger improvements in leg press <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (39). Similar to younger exercisers, these studies suggest that older exercisers performing faster tempo may exhibit faster and larger improvements in peak velocity and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> when compared to strength training with slower tempos.
<img title=" Plyometric Medicine Ball Chest Pass " src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649706228-chest-pass.png" alt="A medicine ball chest pass">

Studies have investigated the effects of a &quot;maximum voluntary concentric tempo (MaxV)&quot; during the concentric phase. Note, a maxV tempo should not be confused with the explosive tempos used during <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training (e.g. medicine ball throws, box jumps, etc.). MaxV tempos are the fastest an individual can lift a load without a quick eccentric or the intent to leave the ground or throw.

Studies with young adult participants have investigated the effects of maxV tempos on a variety of strength and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcome measures. In a study mentioned above, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. compared 20 individuals performing a maxV concentric tempo or a 1/2 maxV concentric tempo during an otherwise identical bench press routine for 6 weeks, 3x/week. The findings demonstrated that the maxV group exhibited larger improvements in 1-RM strength and max velocity at all loads (10). Pareja-Blanco et al. compared 21 young men with resistance training experience, performing a moderate tempo (0.5 m/sec: 0: &#xBD; maxV) or a maximal concentric tempo (0.5 m/sec: 0: maxV) during full squats for 6 weeks, 2x/week, 3-4 sets/session, 2-6 reps/set, with progressive increases in load during the duration of the training period. The maxV group produced more force during each rep, and the &#xBD; maxV group completed each session with more time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>. The findings demonstrated that the maxV group exhibited a trend toward larger improvements for strength and vertical jump height; however, the groups were likely too small to demonstrate statistically significant differences (40). Jones et al. compared 30 male college athletes (mean age 20 &#xB1; 2 years) performing a maxV concentric tempo or a &quot;conventional tempo&quot; during a resistance training program including an upper-body routine (bench press, incline bench press, close grip bench press, behind the neck press, and arm curls) and a lower body routine (parallel squat, Olympic-style clean, Russian hamstring curl, and Romanian deadlift) for 14 weeks, 4 sessions/week (upper body light load day and heavy load day, lower body light load day, and heavy load day), 3-4 sets and 1 partial range set per/exercise, 2 - 10 reps, 2 min. rest between sets, and loads progressing in intensity (50-95% of 1RM) as reps decreased over the course of the program. The findings indicate that the maximal voluntary concentric tempo group exhibited larger improvements in bench press 1RM, medicine ball chest pass distance, and <a id="amortization-phase" data-tip="1547" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/amortization-phase" class="glossary">amortization</a> time during plyo push-ups (41). These studies suggest that young adults performing a maxV concentric tempo, when compared to slow or moderate tempo, may exhibit larger improvements in 1RM strength, maximum lifting velocity, and maximal <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>.

<h4>Functional Outcomes</h4>
Studies have compared the functional outcomes of older individuals training with maxV concentric tempos. An RCT by Bottaro et al. compared 20 inactive volunteers (60&#x2013;76 years old) performing a moderate tempo (2-3:0:2-3) or a maxV concentric tempo (2-3:0:maxV) during a resistance training program (horizontal leg press, knee extension, knee flexion, chest press, seated row, elbow extension, and elbow flexion) for 10 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/session, 8-10 reps/set, 90 sec. rest between sets, with 40-60% of a 1RM load. The findings demonstrated that improvements in 1-RM were similar for both groups, that the maxV group improved <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> more during the bench press and leg press tests, and only the maxV group exhibited significant improvements on functional tests (adapted arm curl <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, 30-s chair stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, and 8-ft up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>) (42). An RCT by Balachandran et al. compared 21 sarcopenic obese adults (&#x2265;60 yo), performing a moderate tempo (2:0:2) with 1-2 min. rest between sets and 70% 1-RM load, or a maxV concentric tempo (2:0:maxV) with no rest between exercises and 40-80% 1-RM loads, during a resistance training program (5 lower body and 6 upper body pneumatic exercise machines) for 15 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/session, 10-12 reps/set. The study demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar improvements in strength, body fat%, and scores on many functional outcome measures (instrumental activities of daily living (IADL), the 6-minute walk <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, grip strength, and skeletal <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> index (SMI)). However, the maxV group exhibited slightly larger improvements for <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, the short physical performance battery (SBBP), timed up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, and pan carry tests, and the moderate tempo group exhibited larger improvements for the jacket on and off, and scarf pick-up tests (43). An RCT by Ramirez-Campillo compared 45 older women (66.3 &#xB1; 3.7 yo) performing a slower tempo (3:0:3) or a maxV concentric tempo (3:0:maxV) during a resistance training program (bench press, standing upper rows, biceps curls, leg press, <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> leg curls, and leg extensions) for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 8 reps/set, 1 min. rest between sets, and a 40-75% 1-RM load. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in 1-RM for bench press, leg press, and grip strength; however, the maxV group exhibited <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements for the sit-to-stand tests, timed up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, 10-minute walk <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, counter-movement jump, and ball throws (44). These studies imply that when comparing slow, moderate, and maxV concentric tempos, older participants may exhibit similar gains in strength and max strength;&#xA0;however, maxV concentric tempos are likely to result in larger improvements in peak velocity at various loads, peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and scores on a variety of functional tests including the short physical performance battery (SBBP), pan carry tests, sit-to-stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, time up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, and 10-minute walk <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>.
<h4>Carry-over and Home Exercise Programs</h4>
Two additional studies suggest performance of maxV tempos by older individuals may improve carry-over of results, and maxV tempos may be successfully incorporated into home exercise programs.&#xA0;Zech et al. compared older adults (65-94 years old) performing a slow tempo (2-3:0:2-3) or a maxV tempo (2-3:0:maxV) during a full-body routine (chest press, hip extension/flexion while standing, hip adduction/abduction while standing, tip-toe raises and chair rise) for 12 weeks, 2x/week, 2 sets/exercise, 2 min. rest between sets, with progressive increases in load from 16 reps/set during week one to 6 reps/set during the final week. Both groups exhibited significant changes in (short physical performance battery) SPPB <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a> scores at the end of training; however, the slow tempo group had returned to baseline values at 36 weeks (following 24 weeks of detraining) and the faster tempo group had retained some improvements during follow-up at 36-weeks. Note, the rate of decrease in performance was higher during the detraining period for the faster tempo group (45). An RCT by Fukumoto et al. compared 46 women (56 yo &#xB1; 8 years) with and without hip osteoarthritis, performing a slow tempo (3:0:3) or a maxV concentric tempo (3:0:maxV) during a home exercise program of 4 exercises (hip abduction in <a id="supine" data-tip="1562" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/supine" class="glossary">supine</a> position, hip extension in <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> position, hip flexion in a sitting position, and knee extension in a sitting position) using Theraband&#x2122; with progressive resistance for 8 weeks, performed daily, 2-3 sets/session, 10 reps/exercise. The findings demonstrated that the groups exhibited similar improvements in strength and walking <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a> scores; however, the maxV group exhibited less loss of echo intensity of the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/gluteus-maximus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">gluteus maximus</a> and larger improvements in the timed up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a> (46). These studies suggest that older individuals performing supervised resistance training with maxV tempos may benefit from improvements in carry-over post-training; and further, maxV tempos incorporated into home-exercise programs may improve maintenance of <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> density and functional outcomes.
<img title="Trainer working with an older client" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649649545-senior-fitness.jpg" alt="An older client working with a trainer">
<h4>Psychosocial Improvements</h4>
In addition to functional outcome measures, studies have also demonstrated that maxV tempos may result in significant psychosocial improvements for older exercisers. An RCT by Henwood et al. compared 67 healthy and independent older adults (65&#x2013;84 yo) performing a slower tempo (3:0:3) with 65-75% 1RM load, or a maxV concentric tempo (3:0:maxV) with 45-75% 1RM during a resistance training program (chest press, supported row, biceps curl, leg press, <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> leg curl, and leg extension, and a cool-down of abdominal crunches and <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> superman) for 24 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets/session, 8 reps/set, and 1 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar and significant increases in lean mass, decreases in bodyfat, increases in dynamic and isometric strength, and the high-velocity group exhibited a small but significant increase in quality of life (QOL) scores (47). An RCT by Katula et al. compared 45 older adults (mean age 74.8, SD = 5.7 years) performing a slow tempo (2-3:0:2-3) or a maxV&#xA0;concentric tempo&#xA0;(2-3:0:MaxV) during a resistance training circuit (dumbbell chest press, bicep curls, triceps kickbacks, Nautilus machine overhead press, shoulder raise, seated row, leg press, and knee extensions) for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 8-10 reps/set, and 70% 1-RM load. When compared to controls, both groups exhibited similar improvements in strength and feelings of self-efficacy; however, the maxV group exhibited larger improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and only the maxV group exhibited improvements in physical function and life satisfaction scores (48). These studies suggest that older individuals performing maxV concentric tempos, when compared to slow and moderate tempos, may exhibit <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements in strength and functional outcomes, as well as <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements in life quality and satisfaction scores.&#xA0;
<h4>MaxV Tempo Limits</h4>
Only two studies comparing older adults performing maxV concentric tempos, to either moderate or slow tempos, failed to demonstrate significant functional differences. Both studies were performed by the same researcher and performed on much older, physically limited adults. Sayers et al. compared 38 older men and women (72 &#xB1; 8 years) performing either a maxV concentric tempo (2:1:maxV) for 12-14 reps/set and 40% of 1RM load, or a moderate tempo (2:1:2) for 8-10 reps/set and 80% of 1RM load, during a routine of pneumatic leg press and leg extensions for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in maximal strength and reps at various loads; however, peak velocity at various loads was higher for the maxV group (49). Sayers et al. (2003) compared 30 physically limited older women performing a moderate tempo (2:0:2) or maxV concentric tempo (2:0:maxV) during&#xA0;leg press and knee extensions for 16 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar improvements for <a id="balance" data-tip="1190" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/balance" class="glossary">balance</a> (mean 8%), stair-climbing (mean 10%), self-reported disability (11%), physical functioning (9%), and mental health (5%) (50). These studies may suggest that achieving <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> strength, <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and/or functional outcomes from maxV concentric tempos may be limited to individuals who are capable of adapting to and benefiting from higher intensity exercise. This may suggest there is a limit to recommending maxV concentric tempos based on age and/or functional capacity.

Repetition Tempo and Power

<h4>Isokinetic Equipment</h4>
Two studies that compared the effects of repetition (rep) tempo on <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> improvements included routines with isokinetic equipment. Note, the isokinetic reps performed in these studies were comprised of reciprocal concentric contractions (no eccentric contraction). Garnica, R. compared 20 young women (24 &#xB1; 1.4 yo) who performed a fast tempo (180&#xB0; per second) or a slow tempo (60&#xB0; per second) during isokinetic shoulder flexion/extension for 4 weeks, 3x/week, 4 sets/session, 5 maximal reciprocal isokinetic reps/set, and 3 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that both groups improved similarly for shoulder flexion and extension strength and shoulder extension <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (ball throwing) (51). Murray et al. compared 20 male <a id="kinesiology" data-tip="1692" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/kinesiology" class="glossary">kinesiology</a> students performing fast tempo reps (400&#xB0; per second) or slow tempo reps (60&#xB0; per second) during knee flexion/extension isokinetic reps for 4 weeks, 2x/week, 5 sets/session, 5 RM/set, with 60 sec. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that there was no significant difference between groups, that neither group improved during 15m or 40m sprint times; however, both groups exhibited a significant improvement in standing long jump distance (52). These studies suggest that resistance training with isokinetic equipment may be beneficial for improving strength and power; however, the tempo of isokinetic reps does not seem to have an effect on the magnitude of improvements.&#xA0;
<h4>Healthy Adults</h4>
Additional studies have compared the effects of tempo on <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> improvements with healthy young adults. Palmieri, G. compared 54 college-aged males performing a fast concentric tempo (4:1:0.75), a slow tempo (4:1:2), or a mix of the slow tempo for 6 weeks, followed by the fast tempo for 4 weeks. The tempos were performed during a lower-body resistance training program (squats and leg curls on Mondays and Fridays; leg extensions and heel raises on Wednesdays) for 10 weeks, 3 sets/exercise, 3-10 reps/set, with a progressive increase in load from 53%-97% 1-RM. The findings demonstrated that all 3 groups exhibited similar improvement during re-assessment of squat 1-RM, vertical jump height without arms, and lower body <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (53). As mentioned above, Pareja-Blanco et al. compared 21 trained young men performing a moderate tempo (0.5 m/sec: 0: &#xBD; maxV) or a maximal concentric tempo (0.5 m/sec: 0: maxV) during full squats for 6 weeks. The findings demonstrated that the maxV group exhibited a trend toward larger improvements for strength and vertical jump height; however, differences did not reach statistical significance (40). Morrissey et al.&#xA0;compared 21 young women (24 &#xB1; 4 yo) performing a faster tempo (1:0:1) or a slower tempo (2:0:2) during squats for 7 weeks, 3x/week, 3 warm-up + 3 full load sets/session, with 8-RM/set. The findings demonstrated that both groups improved on all measures (vertical jump, long jump, squat max strength, knee extension strength at 25&#xBA; - 125&#xBA;/sec); however, the faster group improved more on the vertical jump, long jump and faster velocity knee extension strength tests (54). Usui et al. compared 16 healthy young men performing a moderate tempo (1:1:1) and a slow tempo (1:0:3) during a work matched routine of squats for 8 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 10 reps/set, 1 min. rest between sets, and 50% 1RM loads. Findings demonstrated that the slow tempo group exhibited significant improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> thickness, squat strength, hip extension strength, and vertical jump height, and the moderate tempo group failed to reach statistically significant changes (34). In summary, one study demonstrated that tempo did not influence improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, one study demonstrated maxV tempos trended toward larger improvements but did not reach statistical significance, one study demonstrated fast tempos resulted in larger improvements than moderate tempos, and another study demonstrated slow tempos resulted in larger improvements than fast tempos. Research demonstrates conflicting outcomes and small differences between groups, suggesting that non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, fast) result in similar improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>. Further, the studies by Morrissey et al. (54) and Usui et al. (30) suggest that variables such as intensity, volume, or reps until failure have a stronger influence on improvements
<h4>Elite Athletes</h4>
Two studies were located comparing the effects of different tempos on the improvement of <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcomes of elite athletes. Blazevich et al. compared 9 elite junior sprinters in training (age 19.0 &#xB1; 1.4 years) performing a moderate tempo (2:1:2) with 70 - 90% of 1-RM loads for 4 weeks, followed by either 7 more weeks of the same tempo and load range, or a maxV concentric tempo (1-2:1:maxV) with 30-50% of 1-RM loads. The routine included lower body exercises (hip extension and flexion, knee extension and flexion and squats) performed 2x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 3-10 reps/set (reps decreased and load increased as the program progressed) with 4 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar increases in strength and sprint performance (55). An RCT by Liow et al. compared 27 male and 11 female experienced sprint kayakers, performing a maxV concentric tempo (2:2:maxV) or a moderate tempo (2:1:2), during bench press and <a id="bilateral" data-tip="1552" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/bilateral" class="glossary">bilateral</a> dumbbell <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> lifts (cobras) for 6 weeks, 2x/week, 3-4 sets/exercise, reps/set until failure, 3 min. rest between sets, and 80% 1RM load. The findings demonstrated that both training groups exhibited increases in strength, <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and kayak sprint performance when compared to non-resistance training controls, and the only significant difference between groups was a larger increase in strength exhibited by the faster concentric tempo group (56). Although these studies were conducted with elite athletes, the results are similar to the studies mentioned above. Moderate and fast tempos (non-explosive) are likely to result in similar improvements in power; however, maxV tempos may be more beneficial for increasing strength.&#xA0;
<img title="Sled pulls to improve sprint speed and power production" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649649349-sled-pulls.jpg" alt="Sprint training using a sled">
<h4>Elderly Exercisers</h4>
The difference between slow and fast tempos during resistance training may have a more significant influence on <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcomes for older adults. As mentioned above, an RCT by Correa et al. compared older women (age 67&#xB1;5 years) who performed 6-weeks (2 x/week, 8 - 12 RM) of traditional resistance training (leg press, knee extension, and knee flexion exercises) followed by another 6-weeks of either traditional resistance training, high-speed concentric contraction training (2:0:maxV), or a group that replaced the leg press with <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops. Following the first 6-weeks of training, all participants exhibited significant increases in maximal dynamic strength, maximal <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> activation, and <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> thickness for the vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and rectus femoris, as well as improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> onset latency, reaction time, and the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>. All groups exhibited further improvements following the 6-weeks in different training groups; however, the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> box hops group exhibited significantly larger improvements for the chair sit to stand <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, countermovement jump performance, EMG activity of the vastus lateralis&#xA0;and&#xA0;vastus medialis, <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> latency, and reaction times (19). Signorile et al.&#xA0;compared community-dwelling women (ages 61 to 75) performing a faster tempo (180-270&#xB0; per second) or a slower tempo (60&#xB0; per second) during a work matched resistance training program (isokinetic reciprocal knee flexion/knee extension and plantarflexion/dorsiflexion) for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/session, 6-10 reps/set with 2 min. rest between sets, and 5-min. rest between exercises. Findings demonstrated differences between upper and lower leg muscles and different tempos; only the faster tempo group exhibited significant improvements in peak average <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> for knee extensors, and only the slower tempo group exhibited improvements in peak average <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> for the plantar flexors. No significant differences were noted for either group for dorsiflexion or knee flexion (57). These studies imply that fast and explosive tempos may result in significantly larger improvements in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcomes for older adults; however, increases in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> may also be <a id="specificity" data-tip="1224" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/specificity" class="glossary">specific</a> to certain muscles (i.e. <a id="prime-mover" data-tip="1663" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prime-mover" class="glossary">prime movers</a>).
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<h4>Repetition Velocity</h4>
Several studies allude to explosive tempos resulting in <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> improvements for <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> outcomes when compared to non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, fast). Lesinski et al. compared 36 young (15 &#xB1; 1 years) female elite soccer players performing a progressive strength endurance program (slow tempo, 50-60% of 1-RM; 20-40 reps) or a progressive <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> training program (high velocity, 50-95% of 1-RM; 3-8 reps) for 1 season, 2x/week. The findings demonstrated that the endurance program resulted in larger increases in agility, and the <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> program resulted in larger increases in 1-RM leg press, depth jump height, and 10 - 20m sprint performance (58). Jones et al. compared 30 division-1 male baseball players performing maxV concentric tempos with either 40-60% of 1-RM (resulting in faster reps) or 70-90% of 1-RM (resulting in slower reps) during a lower body resistance training routine (Olympic style parallel squat, Romanian deadlifts, lunges, and partial squats) for 10 weeks, 2x/week, 3 sets and 1 partial range set/exercise, and 2 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that the lighter load (and faster rep) group exhibited larger improvements in peak velocity and <a id="power" class="glossary" href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/glossary-term/power" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-tip="1399">power</a>, and the heavier load (and slower rep) group exhibited larger improvements in 1-RM strength (59). Loturco et al. compared 24, elite soccer players (&lt; 20 yo) randomly assigned to a faster or slower velocity smith machine jump squat group. Differences in velocity were achieved by starting with the smith machine as the reference load, and adding bands to increase or decrease the load to achieve 20% faster or 20% slower velocity repetitions. All players performed the assigned load/velocity for 6 weeks, 3x/week, 6 sets/session, 6 reps/set, with 3 min. rest between sets. Both groups made improvements on all tests; however, the heavier load (slower velocity) group exhibited larger improvements in 1RM strength and mean propulsive velocity during jump squats with 50% or more of body weight, and the lighter load (higher velocity) group demonstrated larger improvements in speed during 5, 10, and 20 m sprints, as well as mean propulsive velocity with jump squats up to 40% of body weight (60). These studies suggest that resistance training with heavier loads is likely to result in larger improvements in strength and velocity with heavier loads; however, lighter loads and explosive velocities are likely to result in larger improvements in velocity at lighter loads, peak velocity, peak <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, jump height, sprint performance and mean propulsive velocity.
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 <h4>What is the appropriate tempo for power?</h4>
 If the goal is to increase <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, it is likely that adult exercisers and athletes will attain similar benefits from resistance training with all non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, and fast tempos). Further, there is evidence that demonstrates high velocity/explosive tempos will result in larger improvements than non-explosive tempos for power-related outcomes (peak velocity, jump height, etc.). These findings should not be misinterpreted. It is beneficial to incorporate strength training into a periodized, <a id="integration" data-tip="1473" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integrated</a> program, for achieving <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> and athletic performance. However, the research in this review implies that athletes and adult exercisers should perform resistance training for strength with a tempo that is <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> for increasing strength and potentially volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>), and when they train for increased velocity the tempos should be explosive.
 Unlike adult exercisers and athletes, there is evidence that elderly exercisers may exhibit larger improvements in function (e.g. 10-min walk <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>, timed up-and-go <a id="assessment" data-tip="1482" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/assessment" class="glossary">test</a>) from resistance training with faster, non-explosive tempos. It could be hypothesized that this is partly due to a reduction in exposure to high-velocity activity (and deconditioning) as we age. Although <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> exercise should be recommended with caution to reduce the risk of injury, incorporating maxV concentric tempos into resistance training may be best practice for an elderly population.
 Note, for more on the physiology or high-velocity movement and the relationship between strength and <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, please refer to the course: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/introduction-power-training-high-velocity-training" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Power (high-velocity) Training: Introduction</a>.
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Very and "Super" Slow Tempos

<h4>Comparing Volume Matched Routines</h4>
Three studies comparing very/super slow training tempos used routines that were volume matched (load x time-under-tension). Rana et al. compared 24 healthy adult females, split into 4 groups; a control group performing no exercise, traditional strength training with 6-10 reps/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), endurance training with 20-30 reps/set, and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), or very slow training with 6-10 reps and very slow tempo (4:0:10). These protocols were performed during a lower-body resistance training routine (leg press, back squats, and knee extensions) for 6 weeks (16-17 training sessions), 3 sets/exercise, 3-5 min. rest between sets, repetitions (reps) to failure. The findings demonstrated that the 6-10 reps/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2) group exhibited the largest improvements in strength, and the higher rep and slower tempo groups exhibited larger improvements in <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> endurance (61). Carlson et al. compared 59 adult resistance-trained male and female participants performing a slow tempo (4:0:2), very slow rep duration (10:0:10), or super slow tempo (30 sec. concentric, 30 sec. eccentric and another 30 sec. concentric) during a resistance training program (chest press, leg press, and pull-down machines) for 10 weeks, 2 sessions/week, 1 set/exercise, reps to failure (7-10 RM). The findings demonstrated similar increases for strength (1RM), and no significant change in body composition, limb circumference (CSA), or fasted blood glucose for all groups (62). Last, an RCT by Westcott et al. compared 147 untrained adults (mean age 53.6 yo) performing either 8-12 reps/set (until failure) of a slow tempo (4:0:2), or 4-6 reps/set (until failure) of a &quot;super-slow&quot; concentric tempo (4:0:10), during a resistance training program on 13 pieces of Nautilus equipment (dumbbell chest press, bicep curls, and triceps kickbacks; Nautilus machine overhead press, shoulder raise, seated row, leg press, and knee extensions) for 8-10 weeks, 2-3x/week, 1 set/exercise, in-circuit. The findings demonstrated that the very slow tempo resulted in larger improvements in strength; however, it is important to note that participants were tested at their trained tempo and rep range making the comparison between groups indirect (63). These studies suggest that very slow and super slow tempos may be <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> to moderate tempos for improving endurance; however, when routines are matched for volume (load x time under <a id="tension" data-tip="1229" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tension" class="glossary">tension</a>) increases in strength and endurance are similar.

Several studies comparing moderate, slow, very slow, and super slow tempos suggest load may be a more influential factor for increasing strength. As mentioned above, Rana et al. compared 6-10 reps/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), 20-30 reps/set and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), and 6-10 reps and very slow tempo (4:0:10), with weight-adjusted to achieve failure in the desired rep range. This protocol resulted in the moderate tempo group lifting heavier loads and exhibiting significantly larger increases in strength (61). Neils et al. compared 16 healthy subjects, with at least 3 months of resistance training experience, performing either 80% of 1RM and a slow tempo (4:0:2) or 50% of 1RM and a super slow tempo (5:0:10) during a resistance training routine (bench press, bicep curls, triceps extensions, leg extensions, leg curls, squats, and upright row) for 8 weeks, 3 days/week on alternating days, 1 set/exercise, 6-8 reps/set, with 60 - 90 sec. rest between sets. The findings of the study demonstrated that both routines were effective for improving strength and power; however, the slow tempo (80% of 1-RM) routine resulted in larger improvements in squat and bench press 1RM strength and much larger increases in <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (counter-movement jump performance). Additionally, the groups did not exhibit any significant improvements in body mass index (BMI), body fat %, or lean body mass (64). In a similar study, Keeler et al. compared 14 healthy, sedentary women (19-45 yo) performing a slow tempo (4:0:2) with 80% of 1RM, or a super slow tempo (5:0:10) with 50% of 1RM, during a resistance training routine (leg press, leg curls, leg extensions, lat pull-downs, bench press, seated rows, biceps curls, and triceps extensions) for 10 weeks, 3 days/week on alternating days, 1 set/exercise, 8-12 reps/set, with 60 - 90 sec. rest between sets. The findings of the study demonstrated that both routines were effective for improving strength; however, the slow tempo routines resulted in significantly larger improvements in 1RM strength and total weight lifted per session. No group exhibited a significant improvement in body mass index (BMI), body fat %, or lean body mass (65). As mentioned above, an RCT by Schuenke et al. compared 34&#xA0;untrained women performing&#xA0;6-10 reps/set of 85% of 1-RM and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), 20-30reps/set of 40-60% of 1RM, and a moderate tempo (1-2:0:1-2), of 6-10 reps/set with&#xA0;40-60% of 1-RM and a&#xA0;very&#xA0;slow tempo&#xA0;(4:0:10)&#xA0;following 6-weeks of lower-body resistance training&#xA0;(leg press, squats, and knee extensions), 2x/week for week 1 and 3x/week for weeks 2-6, 3 sets/exercise, with 2 min. rest between sets.&#xA0;The findings demonstrated that all groups exhibited an increase in type I and type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1377" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle fiber</a> CSA, and the increases in CSA were larger for type IIa fibers than type I fibers. Additionally, the 85% of 1-RM group exhibited an increase in type IIa fiber proportion, and the super slow tempo group only exhibited a significant increase in type II fiber CSA without a significant change in type I fiber CSA (32). These studies suggest that when sets are performed until failure, and/or loads are adjusted to match a predetermined rep range or volume, super slow and very slow tempos result in <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> increases in strength. The study by Schuenke et al. that demonstrated that super slow training resulted in a preferential increase in type II fiber hypertrophy is interesting, but this finding is only reported in this one study, and cannot be clearly labeled as a benefit or advantage.
<img title="Deadlift with Anterior to Posterior Pull" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649431205-deadlift-with-ap.png" alt="A deadlift progression for lower body strength">
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The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance

An additional consideration is the effect repetition (rep) tempo has on the performance of a single rep or set. Two studies by Wilk et al. compared the effect of eccentric contraction tempos on a 1-RM bench press. The first study compared 90 men (mean age = 25.8 &#xB1; 5.3 years) with a minimum of 1-year of resistance training experience, performing a 1-RM bench press with 5 different tempos. All tempos included a volitional concentric tempo; however, the eccentric contraction tempos were pre-determined and included volitional speed, 2 sec., 5 sec., 8 sec., and 10 sec. (V:0:V, 2:0:V, 5:0:V, 8:0V, and 10:0:V). The findings demonstrated that performance decreased as eccentric contraction tempo increased; however, eccentric tempos had to be different by at least 4 seconds for differences in 1-RM strength to reach statistical significance (66). A similar study by Wilk et al. compared 21 females (mean age 23.4 &#xB1; 2.2 years) with a minimum of 1-year of resistance training experience, performing a 1-RM bench press with contraction tempos including 2:0:V, 4:0:V, 6:0:V. The findings again demonstrated that performance decreased as eccentric contraction time increased (67). Supporting the findings by Wilk et al., a&#xA0;two-part RCT by Headley et al. compared&#xA0;17 college-aged males with lifting experience, performing a 1-RM bench press with either a slow tempo (4:0:2) or moderate tempo (2:0:2), demonstrating that the moderate tempo resulted in heavier loads lifted. These studies suggest that imposing a slower tempo may significantly decrease 1-RM strength; this finding includes slower eccentric tempos with volitional concentric tempos.

Additional studies have demonstrated the effect of tempo on the amount of work completed per set. The second part of the RCT mentioned above by Headley et al. compared&#xA0;total work and <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a> response resulting from either a slow or moderate tempo during the following protocol:&#xA0;4 reps of 55% of&#xA0;1-RM; 5 reps of 60% of 1-RM; 6 reps of 65% of&#xA0;1-RM; and a final set with reps until failure of 75% of 1-RM, with 1 min. rest between sets. The findings demonstrated that a moderate tempo resulted in more total reps, more total work on the 4th set, and higher blood concentrations of post-exercise IGF-1; however, both groups exhibited similar changes in post-exercise blood lactate, testosterone, human growth <a id="hormone" data-tip="1266" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hormone" class="glossary">hormone</a>, cortisol, and creatine kinase (68). Lachance et al. compared 75 college-aged males performing a set of push-ups and pull-ups at a fast self-paced tempo (V:0:V), moderate tempo (2:0:2), or slow tempo (4:0:2). Findings demonstrated that when compared to the slow tempo (4:0:2), individuals performing the fast self-paced tempo performed an average of 5.5 more reps (96%), 1.95 Kj more work (96%), in 5.4 less sec. (%16 less), and generated 77.5 W more <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a> (131%). Findings were also significantly different between the fast self-paced tempo and the moderate tempo, and the moderate tempo and slow tempo (69). These studies suggest that faster tempos, including self-paced tempos, are likely to result in more total work per set (and potentially more post-exercise circulating IGF-1) when performing sets to failure with submaximal loads.

Bibliography

&copy; 2022 Brent Brookbush
Questions, comments and criticisms welcome and encouraged

Copyright

A-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks darker under a microscope.  This area of the cell is darker due to parallel arrangement of thicker filaments (myosin) and overlap with the thinner filaments (actin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the A-band is where actin and myosin interact.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Accuracy - the proportion of individuals correctly identified by the test results.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, a special test with perfect accuracy would imply a test has 100% specificity, 100% sensitivity, 100% positive predictive value and 100% negative predictive values.</li>
</ul>

Action Potential - A rapid change in voltage, resulting in a wave of excitation, that may result in stimulation of a nerve or muscle cell.
<ul>
 	<li>In order for an action potential to be initiated, the resting membrane voltage must exceed the excitation threshold, which then results in a cascade of depolarization and the "wave of excitation." Any stimulus below that threshold will not result in an action potential, and a stimulus greater than the threshold will not increase a single action potential, but may result in additional action potentials.  In this way, the action potential functions more like an on/off switch (all or none), and less like a dimmer switch.</li>
</ul>

A single-joint movement pattern (most often) designed to load a specific under-active muscle(s), while minimizing the contribution of over-active synergists via specific cues/joint motions.
<ul>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises are performed with the intent of addressing a muscle exhibiting a reduction in activity (tone) as a result of, or contributing to postural dysfunction.</li>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises cannot be multi-joint movement patterns due to relative flexibility, altered reciprocal inhibition, and synergistic dominance resulting in compensation patterns.</li>
</ul>
Example, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/activation/gluteus-medius-activation-progression/" target="_blank">gluteus medius activation</a> involves resisted hip abduction while minimizing the contribution of the TFL via hip extension.

Active stretching is a term used to describe a stretch that involves an active contraction of opposing musculature to lengthen a muscle to its end range. Generally these stretches are held for 2-5 seconds and repeated for 8-15 repetitions.

Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing (initiating and accelerating) the decomposition of ATP to ADP.
<ul>
 	<li>This dephosphorylation (breakdown) reaction releases energy for processes like muscular contraction.</li>
</ul>

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The molecule that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule, providing most of the energy associated with muscular contraction and human movement. ATP is composed of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three molecules of inorganic phosphates.
<ul>
 	<li>Energy is provided when hydrolysis results in the cleaving of a phophate group; resulting in adenosine diphosphate, an inorganigic phosphate group, and energy.</li>
</ul>

Algometry - measuring the amount of pressure to result in sensitivity or pain, using an algometer.
<ul>
 	<li>Generally, research uses algometry to establish a minimum pain pressure threshold (PPT), in which a lower PPT implies more sensitivity and pain, and a higher PPT implies less sensitivity and pain. PPT is a common outcome measure in trigger point research.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-140177" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg" alt="Image of an Algometer" width="500" height="333" /></a>

All-or-none principle - a nerve or muscle cell's response to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential (threshold of an action potential), the nerve or muscle fiber will respond completely; otherwise, there is no response.

Example, when a motor unit in the biceps brachii is stimulated it contracts the same way whether a 10 lb or 50 lb dumbbell is lifted.  It is actually the number of muscle cells and the size of the motor unit that determines force output.

&nbsp;

The transition period between eccentric load and concentric contraction during a repetition of an exercise.  This term is most often used in reference to power/plyometric exercises, in which a shorter amortization phase is believed to be beneficial.  The shorter amortization phase may better use the stored energy from the elastic deformation of connective tissue and enhance synchronization of myotatic (stretch) reflex with maximum voluntary contraction.

Example, the athlete was cued to spend as little time as possible in the bottom of their squat stance (the amortization phase) during a set of box jumps.

Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.

That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.

Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.

An anatomical direction; toward the front

Example, the face is on the anterior aspect of the head

Appendicular Skeleton - referring to the bones the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the bones that support them. This includes the pelvis, clavicle and scapula. There are approximately 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Appendicular, as in appendage, "that which is appended to something as a proper part," 1640s, from <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/append?ref=etymonline_crossreference">append</a> + <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/-age?ref=etymonline_crossreference">-age</a>. - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/appendage" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Appendicular skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/axial-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">axial skeleton</a>".

A reflexive decrease in muscle activity due to joint dyskinesis.
For example, a reduction in deep cervical flexor activity as a result of cervical spine dyskinesis.

Arthrokinematic Motion - Small amplitude motions between bone surfaces at a joint.  The arthrokinematic motions are roll, glide (slide or translation), spin, compression and distraction (traction). Arthrokinematic motions accompany osteokinematic motions to maintain joint congruence.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, arthrokinematic motion of the talus includes posterior glide on the tibia during ankle dorsiflexion.</li>
</ul>
Synonyms include: arthrokinematics, passive accessory motion, joint play and component motion

&nbsp;

Assessment - is the act of assessing, i.e. determining the importance, size, or value of -

In most cases, the results of an assessment are compared to normative data. If the individual exhibits values that are within normal parameters, it may be assumed that the aspect of health or motion assessed is not contributing to the patient's complaint, symptoms or movement impairment. If the results fall outside of normal parameters, it may indicate that the aspect of health or motion assessed is contributing to, or being affected by the patient/client's complaint, symptoms, or movement impairment. In some cases, the results of an assessment are compared to an "ideal model." In this case, deviations from the ideal are noted as potential issues. For example, deviations noted in the <a title="Introduction to the Overhead Squat Assessment" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/online-courses/articles/assessment/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment/" target="_blank">Overhead Squat Assessment</a> are compared to an "ideal model" of posture and motion.

Assessments used by human movement professionals can be divided into three broad categories:
<ul>
 	<li>"Clear" the Patient/Client for Intervention - These are tests, assessments and evaluations used to determine if a patient/client's issue may improve given the assessing professional's scope, skills, abilities and willingness to treat that individual.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, many of the special tests used in orthopedic medicine assist in determining the level of pathology or likelihood of a particular diagnosis. Certain issues and diagnoses are beyond the scope of the human movement professional, and are better treated by diagnostic professionals in the medical community (physicians, podiatrists, surgeons, etc.). A Calf Squeeze (Thompson) Test is one example, in which a positive sign may indicate a rupture of the Achilles tendon that may be better treated via surgical intervention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Highlight Contraindications - Tests, assessments and evaluations used to stratify risk or preclude a professional from addressing certain tissues, motions or using a particular technique.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, the Vertebral Artery Test (VBI) is often used to determine if high velocity thrust mobilizations (manipulations) are safe for a patient with cervical dysfunction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection: Tests, assessments and evaluations used to assist the professional in determining which techniques, modalities and exercises will best address a patient/client's complaints or desired goals.
<ul>
 	<li>Most movement assessments fall into this category. For example, a positive <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/elys-test-rectus-femoris-flexibility-assessment/" target="_blank">Ely's Test</a> may indicate a need to release and/or lengthen the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/" target="_blank">rectus femoris</a>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Note: An assessment, or assessment result, may fall into more than one category. For example, although goniometry is an assessment most often used to Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection, if a range of motion is significantly altered, with an abnormal end-feel, and/or causes the patient or client/pain, the individual may need to be referred to a physician for further testing and Clearance to resume rehab activities.  Further, that same patient may return to the human movement professional with a list of Contraindicated Activities from the physician. - "When in doubt, refer out!"

Axial Skeleton - referring to the bones of the head, neck, trunk and spinal column (does not include pelvis). There are approximately 80 bones in the axial skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Axial, as in "axis", referring to "imaginary motionless straight line around which a body (such as the Earth) rotates," from Latin axis "axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky" - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/axis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Axial skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/appendicular-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">appendicular skeleton</a>".

Balance - The ability to maintain a body’s center of mass over its base of support. Balance can be static or dynamic.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, maintaining balance is harder on one leg because the center of mass must stay over a much smaller base of support.</li>
</ul>

A ball and socket joint (also called a spheroid joint or spheroidal joint) is a synovial joint in which the rounded or spherical end of one bone fits into a cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. Examples include the hip and shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

Base of support (BoS) - refers to the area beneath an object or person, and the area within the perimeter created by every point of contact that the object or person makes with the supporting surface. This may include the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glutes</a> of someone sitting on a chair, or the back of someone leaning against a wall.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, during a single leg balance the BoS is the area of the foot in contact with the surface; however, when a person is standing on two feet, the BoS is the area of both feet and the surface between them.</li>
</ul>

Pertaining to both sides

Example, bilateral rows are performed with both arms at the same time.

Case-control Study - a particular form of retrospective study that samples a matched group of people who have, and do not have the outcome being studied. A case-control study is a quasi-experimental design, often used in medicine to aid in determining potential contributing factors (cannot determine causality). In this study type exposure is the dependent variable and outcome is independent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in this retrospective case-control, medical records were investigated for trends correlated with cervical pain (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Mäkela, M., Heliövaara, M., Sievers, K., Impivaara, O., Knekt, P., &amp; Aromaa, A. (1991). Prevalence, determinants, and consequences of chronic neck pain in Finland. American journal of epidemiology, 134(11), 1356-1367.</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the tail, relative to humans this term is often used to refer to "in the direction of the tale (toward the feet)".

Example, to release the trapezius muscle the therapist used a force directed caudally.

Center of mass (CoM) - an object's mean position of mass; that is, a point that is perfectly surrounded by an equal amount mass in all directions.

Center of gravity (CoG) - point where gravity appears to act. Since the human body is so small compared to the earth, we can assume gravity acts uniformly on the body, and that CoG and CoM are the same.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the CoM of the human body while lying down or standing straight up is close to our navel. However, it is possible that during a resistance exercise, the combination of the body's weight and the weight of the resistance will place the combined CoM outside the body. For example, during the mid-portion of a <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/back-squat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">back squat</a> the CoM would be several anterior to the naval.</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the head (synonym: cranial)

Example, hip pain was felt with any force directed cephalad.

Cohort Study - a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic), performing a cross-section at intervals through-out a period of time. A cohort study is a quasi-experimental design often used in medicine to aid in determining etiology or a cause-and-effect relationship. In this study type exposure is the independent variable and outcome is dependent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Cholewicki et al. (1) investigated Yale Varsity Athletes (the cohort) with 2 and 3 year follow up (longitudinal design) and found that trunk muscle response time to off-loading was predictive of future low back injury.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/core/increased-trunk-muscle-latency-may-cause-rather-than-result-from-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</a></li>
</ol>

Comparable Sign: A combination of pain, stiffness and/or spasm during examination that is comparable to the patients symptoms.
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

An alternative movement pattern that has been adopted to compensate for dysfunction/impairment in the human movement system.
Example: A lack of calf extensibility may limit dorsiflexion, leading to the knees bowing inward (functional valgus) and excessive forward lean of the torso during a squat.

An arthrokinematic motion - the approximation of joint surfaces; that is, a force that directs one bone surface into another resulting in a reduction in intra-articular volume. Although widely thought of as a "destructive force", it is likely best to consider compression as a naturally occurring, stabilizing force. Any arthrokinematic force in excess (spin, glide, roll, traction) may be viewed as potentially deleterious.

For example, during a squat the femoral head is compressed into the acetabulum by muscular forces, bodyweight and any additional external load.

Concave (Concavity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the interior surface of a bowl or sphere - to cave-in or curve inward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the internal surfaces of the pelvis is concave, holding some of the bodies viscera.</li>
</ul>

Concordant Sign - The patient's specific pain, symptom or complaint. 
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

Conductivity: Stimulation results in more than a local effect (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, in a muscle cell the stimulation of a motor endplate results in a change in cell membrane polarity that rapidly propagates (is conducted) along the entire length of the muscle cell, stimulating all sacromere.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

A condyloid joint (also called condylar, bicondylar, ellipsoid, or ellipsoidal) is an ovoid articular surface, or condyle, that is received into an elliptical cavity.  These joints permit movement in two planes.  Examples include the knee, metacarpophalangeal joints and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Connective Tissue Cell - One of the four basic types of animal tissue, consisting mostly fibers and ground substance.  These cells are specialized to binds organs together, holds them in place, protect them from external forces, and may fill space in the body's cavities.

Example, the body's muscles are enclosed in durable connective tissue sheets known as the "epimysium", "perimysium", and "endomysium," which and in support and transmitting force.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Contractility: The ability to shorten (1).
<ul>
 	<li>Contractility: Muscle cells are unique in the amount they can shorten when stimulated; this is this largerly due to the highly organized and unique arrangement of myofilaments (actin and myosin).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Pertaining to the opposite side

Example, the external oblique muscle performs contralateral rotation; rotation to the opposite side.

Convex (Convexity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere - to bulge or curve outward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the top of your head is shaped by the convex exterior surface of your skull.</li>
</ul>

Correlational Research - Non-experimental <a href="https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/">research</a> method in which the statistical relationship between two variables is investigated.
<ul>
 	<li>In this research by Kwon et al., a correlation was noted between a decrease in extensibility during a hamstring length test (goniometry) and current knee pain (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/correlation-patellofemoral-pain-syndrome-pfps-hamstring-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kwon O, Yun M, and Lee W. (2014). Correlation between intrinsic patellofemoral pain syndrome in young adults and lower extremity biomechanics. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26: 961-964</a></li>
</ol>

Counter-nutation - posterior rotation of sacrum relative to ilium, and/or anterior rotation of ilium relative to sacrum.
<ul>
 	<li>The pelvic floor muscles are examples of muscle that may counter-nutate the sacrum.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_126335" align="aligncenter" width="400"]<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png"><img class=" wp-image-126335" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png" alt="Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint" width="400" height="967" /></a> Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint[/caption]

&nbsp;

Crossover (Study) Design - A type of longitudinal, repeated measures quasi-experimental design in which each group receives both treatments, but at different times. It is named "crossover" due to the patients "crossing-over" to the other treatment or sham group after a specified period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>This type of study has the advantage of every individual serving as their own control, which may reduce the influence of confounding variables.</li>
 	<li>Unfortunately, the design itself introduces the chances that anyone receiving the experimental variable in the first period will continue to be effected in the second period.</li>
</ul>
In a study by Senna et al., a cross-over design was used to investigate the difference load made on inter-set rest intervals (1).
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/strength-training-research-corner/heavy-vs-light-load-single-joint-exercise-performance-with-different-rest-periods/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Senna, G.W., Rodrigues, B.M., Sandy, Scudese, Bianco, A, &amp; Dantas, E.H.M. (2017). Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different intervals. Journal of Human Kinetics, 58, 197-206. </a></li>
</ol>

Cross-sectional Study - a research design that involves gathering data from a population or representative subset at a specific point in time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Karimi-Mobarake et al.(1) investigated the prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum among school children 7-11 years old in Iran.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/low-prevalence-of-genu-varum-and-valgum-among-elementary-school-children/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karimi-Mobarake, M., Kashefipour, A., Yousfnejad, Z. The prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum in primary school children in Iran 2003-2004. (2005) Journal of Medical Science 5(1). 52-54</a></li>
</ol>

Cytokine - A broad and loose category of small proteins that act through receptors, and are especially important to immune function (inflammation).
<ul>
 	<li>Cytokines include substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Their definite distinction from hormones is a topic of continued research.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Dependent variable - in research, this is the variable that is changed by the independent variable, most often this is the "outcome" of the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Cleland et al. (1), the independent variable is "thoracic manipulation," and the dependent variable is "lower trapezius muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/short-term-effects-lower-thoracic-manipulation-lower-trapezius-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cleland J, Selleck B, Stowell T, Brown L, Alberini S, St. Cyr H, Caron T. Short-term Effects of Thoracic Manipulation on Lower Trapezius Muscle Strength.  Journal of Manual &amp; Manipulative Therapy. 2004; 12(2): 82-90</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the trunk or center of the body

Example, the foot is at the distal end of the leg.

An arthrokinematic motion - a force applied to a body part that may result in the separation of joint surfaces, a reduction in intra-articular pressure, and/or an increase in intra-articlar space.

For example, to hang from one's hands (i.g. in preparation for a pull-up) results in a traction force on the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

An anatomical term of location; back or upper surface

Example, shoe laces may compress tissues on the dorsal surface of the foot

The "drawing-in" maneuver is a common cue used during exercise and rehabilitation programs. A light contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abominis</a> (and potentially the entire <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>) achieved by gently pulling the lower abdominal region away from one's waist band. This should have minimal effect on breathing, and should not be confused with a maximal contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abdominis</a> resulting in a "vacuum pose".
<ul>
 	<li>Research often refers to this maneuver as the "abdominal drawing-in maneuver"; abbreviated ADIM.</li>
</ul>
Development and introduction of this cue into practice is based on the pivotal research and resulting text:
<ol>
 	<li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization – A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
</ol>

Faulty or abnormal movement; an alteration of normal kinematics.

For example, joint stiffness or a reduction in arthrokinematics motion that results in limited osteokinematic range of motion - inadequate inferior glide of the femoral head resulting in limited abduction of the hip.

The seeping into, or abnormal collection of fluid in a body cavity.

For example, knee effusion describes swelling within the knee joint.

Note: the word "effusion" is used differently in medicine than it is used in reference to the movement (seeping out) of liquids and gases, for example in chemistry.

&nbsp;

A trait of body tissues that allows a tissue to return to its resting length or state after deformation or stretch.
Example:  Muscle is elastic tissue; many muscles will return to their resting length after being stretched to 150% of that length without any appreciable change in tissue quality.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a cell to return to its resting length after being stretched/lengthened.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: this term is often confused with extensibility. Elasticity is not the ability to stretch; it is the ability to return to normal length after being stretched. Muscle tissue, connective tissue and even nerve tissue have varying levels of elasticity.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Epithelial cell - One of the four basic cell types, found lining the body's cavities, blood vessels, organs and constitutes most gland tissue.  These cells are specialized to aid with absorption, secretion, or act as a barrier from foreign objects.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. S., &amp; Miller, L. (1998). Anatomy &amp; physiology. New York (NY): WCB/McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Equilibrium - a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, to maintain a neutral trunk while pushing or pulling a weight in one hand, your core musculature must balance the force by creating an equal amount of force in the opposite direction.</li>
</ul>

The study of causation, or origination. The word is commonly used in the medical professions, where it may refer to the study of why things occur, or the reason behind why things act a certain way.

For example, the etiology of low back pain is a complex subject, with multiple contributing factors and various structures implicated.

<div class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Evidence-based medicine (practice) is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient(client) values (2)."</div>
<ul>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">...the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (clients).  It involves the integration of at least (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve (1).</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. M., Haynes, R. B., &amp; Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.</li>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett D et al. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd edition. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p.1</li>
</ol>

Excitability: The ability of a cell to change in membrane conductance as a response to stimulation.

<ul>
 	<li>For example, muscle cells are specialized to react to a change in membrane potential with contraction, where as nerve cells are specialized to propagate a change in membrane potential along there axons and communicate that message to other tissues via neurotransmitters.
</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Excitation threshold: The level that a depolarization must reach for an action potential to occur.
<ul>
 	<li>The excitation threshold is a contributing factor to the "all-or-none" response of muscle and nerves cells to a stimulus.</li>
</ul>

Exercise Progression - Modification of an exercise with the intent of promoting adaptation by increasing demand. This can be accomplished by increasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise progression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise, or series of exercises that make it harder to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Progression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Exercise regression - The opposite of progression; that is, modification of an exercise with the intent of reducing demand. This can be accomplished by decreasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability. Generally, regressions are used to modify an exercise to the client's current level of ability, with the intent of improving form, motor learning and retention.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise regression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise or series of exercises that make it easier to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Regression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Experimental Research - Studies in which the researchers introduce the variable to be studied, with the intent of observing the outcome. This is different than observational research which observes the effect of a variable already present. Many texts also assert that experimental research should include randomization and ideally a control group, as is seen in Randomized Control Trials. Studies in which the variable is introduced by the researchers, but participants are not randomized may be considered Quasi-experimental research.
<ul>
 	<li>In this study by Esformes, the experimental variable was squat depth and the outcome measures observed were various performance measures related to power (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/back-squat-depth-lower-body-post-activation-potentiation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Esformes, J., &amp; Bampouras, T. (2013). Effect of back squat depth on lower-body postactivation potentiation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 2997-3000.</a></li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Extensibility: The ability of a cell to be stretched or lengthened without damage (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, most cells would rupture with even a modest stretch, but muscles can stretch up to 3 times their contracted length.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

False Negative - the proportion of negatives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as negative when the patient was actually positive)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

False Positive - the proportion of positives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as positive when the patient was actually negative)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

The function of fascia is to transmit force, provide support, and protect tissues. Fascia can effect motion by:
Transmitting force from one or more muscles (example: the thoracolumbar fascia)
Restricting motion in cases of adaptive shortening and/or adhesion to proximal structures (example: iliotibial band in cases of lower-leg dysfunction)
Elastic recoil after stretching can contribute to force production (example: plyometric exercise)

Note: There is evidence that fascia may house more receptors related to human movement than other tissues. In this way fascia may act as a motherboard for the nervous system

The fascial system does not contract or develop trigger points, and its capacity to adapt to stretching and or strengthening exercise is limited, especially when compared to the adaptive capacity of muscle tissue.

Fibromyalgia - A loosely defined diagnosis that is associated with a combination of widespread pain in combination with 2) tenderness at 11 or more of the 18 specific tender point sites. Consideration may also be given to the presence of psychosocial stressors and inflammatory disease in the patients history. Newer research suggests that fibromyalgia may be at least in part due to central sensitization of myofascial pain, often associated with trigger points (1 - 4).
<ol>
 	<li>Wolfe, F. (2018). Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome Criteria: Problems in Definition and Validity. Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Widespread Pain: From Construction to Relevant Recognition.</li>
 	<li>Wolfe, F., Smythe, H. A., Yunus, M. B., Bennett, R. M., Bombardier, C., Goldenberg, D. L., ... &amp; Fam, A. G. (1990). The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology, 33(2), 160-172.</li>
 	<li>Alonso-Blanco, C., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Morales-Cabezas, M., Zarco-Moreno, P., Ge, H. Y., &amp; Florez-García, M. (2011). Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. The Clinical journal of pain, 27(5), 405-413.</li>
 	<li>Staud, R., Nagel, S., Robinson, M. E., &amp; Price, D. D. (2009). Enhanced central pain processing of fibromyalgia patients is maintained by muscle afferent input: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. PAIN®, 145(1-2), 96-104.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.
Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.

An increase in joint stability via compressive forces resulting from muscular contraction and increased tension in fascial structures (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to core intrinsic stabilizers, the thoracolumbar fascia and the sacroiliac joint; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Form closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

The relative contribution of joint shape and structure to the stability of a joint (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to the "rough" articulating surfaces of the sacroiliac joint and the wedge shape of the sacrum; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Force closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

An arthrokinematic motion - linear motion across a joint surface parallel to the plane of the adjacent joint surface, just as your posterior moves relative to a "slide" in a park.

For example, the glide of facet joint in the spine during spinal flexion and extension, or the posterior glide of the humeral head that must accompany anterior roll to maintain congruence with glenoid fossa during shoulder horizontal adduction.

A plane joint (also called an arthrodial joint, gliding joint or plane articulation) is a synovial joint which allows only gliding movement in the plane of the articular surfaces. The opposed surfaces of the bones are flat or almost flat, with movement generally limited by tight capsules and ligaments. Plane joints are numerous, are most often small, and allow very little motion.  Examples include the carpal joints of the wrist, the tarsal joints of the ankle, and the facet joints of the spine.

"...refers to the measurement of angles, in particular the measurement of angles created at human joints by the bones of the body (1).

&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White. Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry 3rd Edition. Copyright (C) 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
</ol>

Ground reaction force (GRF) - The force exerted by the ground on the body in contact with it.

For example, when a runner's foot strikes the ground with a force equal to the mass of the individual times their acceleration due to gravity, momentum and muscular exertion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on the runner's foot.
<ul>
 	<li>GRF is often measured in research studies using force plates as a means of quantitatively measuring the force generated by an individual.</li>
</ul>

H-Band - Refers to the central zone of a sarcomere that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the sarcomere is a lighter portion of the A-band where there is no overlap between the thinner filaments (actin), and the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>Example, when a muscle contracts, actin and myosin cross-bridging occurs in the region of the A-band until the H-band is reached where no overlap occurs.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

A hinge joint (also called a ginglymus) is a synovial joint in which the articular surfaces fit one another in a way that only permits motion in one plane. Examples include the elbow, the knee (unless considered a condyloid joint) and the interphalangeal joints.

Holism (holistic) (biological holism) - (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that systems and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts.
<ul>
 	<li>Summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics": "The whole is more than the sum of its parts". However, the term "holism" was introduced into language by the South African statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. (Smuts J. C. 1987 [1926]. Holism and evolution. Cape Town: N &amp; S Press.)</li>
</ul>
Example: The Brookbush Institute promotes a holistic approach to human movement science, in which the muscular, fascial, articular and neural systems are not viewed as separable and all proximal segments are considered.

Hormone: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, transported via tissue fluids such as blood, to stimulate cells to "act."
<ul>
 	<li>Example: Growth hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain; stimulating growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in certain types of cells</li>
</ul>
The English physician E. H. Starling discovered in collaboration with the physiologist W. M. Bayliss secretin, the first hormone, in 1902. (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Henriksen, J. H., &amp; de Muckadell, O. S. (2000). Secretin, its discovery, and the introduction of the hormone concept. Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation, 60(6), 463-472.</li>
</ol>

A range of motion achieved by the patient/client that is more than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If an individual can place their forehead on their knees they are likely hypermobile at one, if not several joints

Example 2: 110° of shoulder external rotation would be considered hyper-mobile.

Hyperplasia is an increase in organic tissue size due to an adaptive increase in the number of cells per organ.
<ul>
 	<li>Although muscle hyperplasia has been noted in some animals, human muscle tissue does not seem to have this adaptive ability.</li>
</ul>

A condition of excessive tone of the skeletal muscles; increased resistance of muscle to passive stretching.  May be related to increased neural drive, synergistic dominance, trigger points, reflexive over-activity, and/or muscle length.
Example:  Individuals who exhibit ankle eversion and abduction during an overhead squat assessment likely have hypertonic fibularis (peroneal) muscles.

Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle mass/size due to increase in the volume and cross-sectional area (CSA) of individual muscle cells. The increase in cross-sectional area can be attributed to an an increase in contractile proteins and structural elements (myofibrillar hypertophy), as well as an increase in glycogen storage and elements related to metabolism (sarcoplasmic hypertophy). Hypertrophy is an adaptation of both cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers in response to progressive increases in workload.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Hypertrophy is not hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle size due to an adaptive increase in the number of muscle fibers/cells per muscle. This type of adaptation does not occur in human muscle tissue.</li>
</ul>

A range of motion achieved by a patient/client that is less than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If the end range of shoulder external rotation is reached and measured as 75° during goniometric assessment, the client/patient is exhibiting hypomobility of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a phenomenon; "scientific hypotheses" are generally constructed in a way that is testable or falsifiable.
<ul>
 	<li>Example: The hypothesis, "excessive knee valgus may be correlated with future knee pain and injury," has been the subject of several studies published over the last decade.</li>
</ul>

Diminished tone of skeletal muscles; diminished resistance of muscles to passive stretching.   May be related to inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, arthrokinematics inhibition and/or  increased resting length of muscle.
Example:  If your knees cave (hip adduction) during a squat or leg-press it is likely that your gluteus medius is hypotonic.

I-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the cell is lighter due to parallel arrangement of thinner filaments (actin), and no overlap with the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the I-bands will decrease in width and move closer to one another.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Independent variable - in research, this is the variable or phenomenon being manipulated in the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Ghanbari et al. (1), the independent variable is "knee joint mobilization", the dependent variable is "quadriceps muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/effect-knee-joint-mobilization-quadriceps-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ghanbari A. and Kamalgharibi S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences. 2(4): 186-191</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; toward the bottom (below)

Example, the mouth is inferior to the eyes

A reduction in neural drive, muscular activity, and or force output due to altered neuromuscular reflex.  Alterations in neuromuscular reflex may occur due to increases in muscle length (hypothesis: increased excitation threshold), altered reciprocal inhibition in response to increased antagonist tone, and or alterations in joint motion (arthrokinematics inhibition).

Making a whole of parts.

Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.

Intermuscular Coordination - Optimal timing and motor unit recruitment of agonists, antagonists, synergists, neutralizers, stabilizers and fixators.

Example: Role of Muscles during Hip Extension
<ul>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Prime Mover" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/prime-mover/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Prime Mover&lt;/div&gt;The muscle most responsible for a joint action under load -&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, the muscle that can produce the most force for a given joint action. Often this term is used synonymously with the term agonist. The prime mover as defined above, may or may not be the most active muscle for a joint action during activities of daily living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: the gluteus maximus is the most powerful hip extensor and therefore the prime mover; however, the hamstrings are likely the most active hip extensors during low level activities like walking or standing.">Prime Mover</a>:  <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/external/82855344.hd.mp4?s=54c3e7d98fb9d4e0af8d282c85ba9b3e">Gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Synergists" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/synergists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Synergists&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that assist the prime mover in performing a joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all muscles that can perform a joint action that are not the prime mover, are termed synergists.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The rectus abdominis is the prime mover of spinal flexion. All other muscles that can perform spinal flexion are synergists including – external obliques, internal obliques and psoas.">Synergists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/biceps-femoris/">Biceps femoris (long head)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/semitendinosus-and-semimembranosus/">semitendinosus, semimembranosus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">posterior head of adductor magnus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Antagonist" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/antagonists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Antagonist&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.">Antagonists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/psoas/">Psoas</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/iliacus/">iliacus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl/">tensor fascia latae</a> (TFL),<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/"> rectus femoris</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">anterior adductors (especially pectineus)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/sartorius/">sartorius</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Neutralizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/neutralizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Neutralizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose unwanted joint motions created by the prime mover and/or synergists, and/or muscles that prevent unwanted ancillary motion.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The teres minor and infraspinatus neutralize the internal rotation force created by the pectoralis major during horizontal adduction of the shoulder.">Neutralizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-minimus/">Gluteus minimus</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-medius/">anterior fibers of gluteus medius</a> neutralize external rotation force of <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/">gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Stabilizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/stabilizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Stabilizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles whose primary role is to improve arthrokinematics by maintaining optimal alignment of joint surfaces.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most often these muscles are the most intrinsic muscles of a joint, have a larger percentage of Type I muscle fibers and are rich in proprioceptors.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the rotator cuff act as stabilizers for most shoulder motions.">Stabilizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/deep-rotators-of-the-hip/">Deep rotators of hip</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Fixator" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/fixators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Fixator&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.">Fixators</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/">Intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-abdominis/">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/internal-obliques/">internal</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/external-obliques/">external obliques</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/quadratus-lumborum/">quadratus lumborum</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/erector-spinae/">erector spinae</a></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Example from: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/introduction-to-functional-anatomy/kinesiology-of-the-hip/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to Functional Anatomy: Kinesiology of the Hip</a>

Intramuscular coordination refers to the coordinated recruitment of motor units within a single muscle. This concept is used to explain increases in maximal strength and power; however, the coordinated and sequential recruitment of motor units is also essential to strength endurance and smooth coordinated motion.  Related terminology may include; motor unit recruitment, preferential recruitment, rate coding, sequence, etc..

Example: It is hypothesized that the "shaking" noted during a novice exercisers attempt at an activity like the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/ball-crunch-and-progressions/" target="_blank">stability ball crunch</a> may be due to relatively poor intramuscular coordination. Rather than smooth, sequential firing of rectus abdominis motor units, groups of motor units turn on and off in an uncoordinated manner.

Pertaining to the same side

Example, the quadratus lumborum performs ipsilateral flexion; lateral flexion toward the same side as the muscle.

An isoform, or variant, is a member of a set of similar proteins, that originate from the same gene, or gene family.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the variations in myosin heavy chain proteins (MHC I, MHC IIA, MHC IIB/X) that contribute to the characteristic differences between muscle fiber types.</li>
</ul>

“The Prime Assumption”
Everything crossing a joint will influence joint motion during every joint action.

A concept that has expanded over the past several decades to describe the integration of 4 body systems (muscle, joints, fascia and nerves), as well as, the coordinated function of various body segments (e.g. hip, knee and ankle) to produce motion. Kinetic referring to motion, and chain being an analogy for the interdependent link between systems.

Example, the posterior kinetic chain, refers to the integrated function of nerves, muscles, fascia and joints on the posterior side of the body.

The concept of the kinetic chain was originally adapted from the work of a mechanical engineer named Franz Reuleaux (Kinematics of Machinery (1875)) by Dr. Arthur Steindler in 1955 (Steindler A: Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas Co.. 1955).

Latent Trigger Point - A myofascial trigger point that is not painful at rest, only painful when palpated, and may or may not exhibit a characteristic referral pain pattern when palpated.  Latent trigger points do result in an acute point of sensitivity, in a taut band of muscle, and may restrict range of motion (1).

Note: Based on the clinical experience, the Brookbush Institute suggests that latent trigger points (sometimes refereed to as Tender Points) are more common than active trigger points. Further, they are likely addressed more often than trigger points; being the intended target of many soft-tissue mobility techniques.
<ol>
 	<li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,© 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the midline

Example, the anterior deltoid is lateral to the pectoralis major

Length/Tension Relationship - The amount of force generated by a muscle is dependent on sarcomere length.
<ul>
 	<li>The ability of sarcomere to maximally produce force occurs when sarcomere length results in optimal overlap between actin and myosin. Stretching a sarcomere decreases overlap between actin and myosin filaments and reduces force production (1-3). When length is less than optimal, actin from opposite ends overlap and interfere with cross-bridging, and myosin filament are compressed as they contact the the Z-disk also reducing force (4)</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Gordon, A. M., Huxley, A. F., &amp; Julian, F. J. (1966). The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. The Journal of physiology, 184(1), 170-192.</li>
 	<li>Edman, K. A. P. (1966). The relation between sarcomere length and active tension in isolated semitendinosus fibres of the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 183(2), 407-417.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L., Loren, G. J., &amp; Friden, J. (1994). In vivo measurement of human wrist extensor muscle sarcomere length changes. Journal of neurophysiology, 71(3), 874-881.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L. (2002). Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Levels of Evidence - Relative to evidence-based practice, levels of evidence are an attempt to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.  Note: levels of evidence do not supersede the critical evaluation of an experienced professional, and should be viewed as guidelines - a meta-analysis may be poorly constructed (Level IA), and a comparative study (Level III) may employ new technologies and a strong methodology.


The Levels of Evidence used by the Brookbush Institute, as described by Shekelle et al.(1):
<ul>
 	<li class="p1">IA - Evidence from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials</li>
 	<li class="p1">IB - Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIA - Evidence from at least one controlled study without randomization</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIB - Evidence from at least one other type of quasi-experimental study</li>
 	<li class="p1">III - Evidence from non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case-control studies</li>
 	<li class="p1">IV - Evidence from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, or both</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., &amp; Grimshaw, J. (1999). Developing clinical guidelines. Western Journal of Medicine, 170(6), 348.</li>
</ol>

Likelihood Ratios - Likilihood ratios are used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test. They use sensitivity and specificity to determine whether a test result usefully changes the practitioner's chance (probability) of reaching the correct assessment. Calculation of likelihood ratios is based on Baye's theorem.
<ul>
 	<li>Positive Likelihood Ratio (LR+) - The ratio of a positive test result in people with the pathology to a positive test result in people without the pathology.</li>
 	<li>Negative Likelihood Ratio (LR-) - The ratio of a negative test result in people with the pathology to a negative test result in people without the pathology.</li>
</ul>

Longitudinal Study - a research design that involves observing the same variables, several times over a period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Hewett et al. (1) is a type of longitudinal study called a "cohort study." This study investigated whether excessive knee valgus during landing was a predictor of knee injury risk in adolescent females over the course of a season.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/research-review-increased-valgus-during-landing-predicts-acl-injury-in-adolescent-female-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501</a></li>
</ol>

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Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

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