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Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo Audio

Repetition and exercise tempos for stability, muscle endurance, hypertrophy, strength and power. Effects of training to failure, super slow tempos, tempo vs load, and physiology of tempo training. 

Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

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This course discusses the optimal repetition tempo for various training goals (a.k.a. rep tempo, rep speed, rep cadence, lifting tempo, tempo training, etc.). That is, this course discusses the evidence-based ideal tempos for endurance, hypertrophy, strength, power, athletic performance, functional training, and corrective exercise. The details discussed include the effect rep tempos have on muscle adaptations, short-term and long-term hormone concentrations, post-exercise protein synthesis, muscle growth, muscle fiber type proportions, EMG activity, and ideal tempos for improving the rate of force development for athletes.

Some findings from the included systematic review resulted in counter-intuitive, or at least less conventional recommendations. For example, volume is likely more important for hypertrophy goals (increasing muscle mass), suggesting that if sets are performed with reps to failure, and each session is performed with the intent to iteratively increase volume, then slow, moderate, or max velocity concentric tempos may be used. Note, because time-under-tension is essential for increasing volume, it may be ideal to maintain slower eccentric tempos. Alternatively, research suggests that repetition tempo is the most important variable when training for peak velocity/power. Explosive tempos are not only ideal, but they are also essential for improving power.

Movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider acute variables essential knowledge for optimal exercise programming, and rep tempo is one of those acute variables. This course is part of our continued effort to optimize “acute variable” recommendations.

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Pre-approved for Continuing Education Credits for:

The most influential variable is in parantheses

 2-4: 2-4: MaxV or explosive (range of motion, volume)

 2+: 0-2: MaxV or longer (volume per set) 

 2+: 0-2: MaxV or longer (volume per routine, reps until failure/set, load)

 2+: 0-2: MaxV: (velocity, volume per routine) 

 lifter's preference: 0: MaxV (load) - Note that slower tempos may be appropriate for improvements in strength at slower velocities.

 Explosive: 0: Explosive (speed) - Explosive tempos include a quick pre-stretch, the shortest amortization phase possible, and a concentric contraction with the intent to release or leave the ground.

The bent over row exercise being performed in a group circuit

Course Description: Repetition Tempo

Acute Variables Repetition Tempo Course Study Guide

Course Study Guide: Acute Variables Repetition Tempo

Course Summary Webinar: Repetition Tempo

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV):

 A maximum velocity concentric contraction that does not include a quick pre-stretch, the intent to throw an object, or the intent to leave the ground (e.g. the fastest concentric contraction that can be achieved during a bench press or squat). These tempos are as fast as the load can be lifted, but are distinct from the explosive tempos used during power exercises.

 A maximal velocity rep that includes a quick pre-stretch, shortest possible amortization phase (isometric), and the intent to release or leave the ground during the concentric contraction.

 Research suggests that increasing volume (load x time under tension) results in the largest increases in post-exercise circulating blood hormones and enzymes, protein synthesis, and hypertrophy (increasing cross-sectional area). This implies that slower tempos, repetitions until failure/set, and perhaps more total sets/routine may be optimal for these goals.

 Time-under-tension/set has the largest influence on endurance. This implies that slower tempos and repetitions until failure/set may be beneficial.

 Imposing a slower tempo may significantly decrease 1-RM strength; this finding includes slower eccentric tempos with volitional concentric tempos. It is recommended that lifters use a fast, self-paced repetition tempo during max strength training (1-6 RM/set).

 Research implies that resistance training with the goal of increasing peak velocity (power) must include exercises that allow for repetitions with explosive tempos. Although strength training may be beneficial for improving peak velocity long-term, there may be no difference in power outcomes when comparing slow, moderate, or fast tempos performed during strength training. In short, when training for strength optimize repetition tempos for improving strength, and when training for peak velocity optimize repetition tempos for peak velocity.

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (maxV):

 MaxV tempos have demonstrated superior efficacy for increasing strength and functional outcomes for young adults, elite athletes and elderly individuals (with the exception of much older and physically impaired elderly individuals). Further, maxV tempos are unlikely to have a negative influence on activation, endurance, or hypertrophy, especially when longer eccentric tempos and repetitions-to-failure/set are used to maintain optimal volume. This implies that maxV tempos may be recommended for all non-power goals. Note, slower concentric tempos may also be beneficial for increasing volume to aid in endurance, hypertrophy, and/or tempo-specific maximum strength goals. To notate that both maxV tempos and longer tempos may be beneficial in the table below, the abbreviation "maxV+" is used to imply "maxV or longer tempo".

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity (Activation):

 Faster concentric tempos and heavier loads are likely to result in the largest increase in initial and peak EMG activity; however, the largest increase in average EMG activity may result from slower tempos, lighter loads, repetitions until failure and higher average volume/set. This may imply that optimal activation tempos include fast and maxV concentric tempos to optimize peak EMG activity, with longer isometric and eccentric tempos to optimize average EMG activity and range of motion specific strength (e.g. strength in a previously lost end range). Additionally, it may be necessary to incorporate explosive, or close to explosive tempos to maximize initial and peak EMG activity and improve activation latency (e.g. reactive activation exercise).

 There is no benefit to very slow and super slow tempos when compared to slow and moderate tempos during volume-matched routines. Further, very slow and super slow tempos may be inferior for increasing strength due to the very light loads that must be used to complete pre-determined rep ranges (e.g. work and volume). These tempos are not recommended.

Repetition (rep) tempos are generally notated in the following format "(3:1:2)". The numbers are seconds (sec.) unless otherwise indicated, and each number corresponds to a phase of contraction in the following order: "eccentric: isometric: concentric." For Example, a pull-up with a 4:1:2 tempo would be performed with the following cadence: "2 sec. on the way up, 1 sec. hold at the top, 4 sec. on the way down."

Special Cases in Notating Research Tempos

 If research failed to indicate an isometric contraction length, or the intent was to not pause between eccentric and concentric contractions, then the isometric contraction length is assumed to be at or near "0" and a "0" is used in the isometric contraction position (e.g. 2:0:2).

 If research failed to indicate a tempo marking for a phase of contraction, and that tempo cannot be zero, a question mark was used in its place (e.g. 3:2:?).

 This tempo will be abbreviated maxV (e.g. 2:1:maxV).

 Some studies have listed tempos in units other than sec. per contraction phase, including time per complete rep (4-sec./rep), degrees or rads per second (90°/sec.), and/or percent of maxV (50% of maxV). When possible, these notations were fit to standard tempo markings (e.g. 180°/sec: 0 : 50% of Max V).

Special Use of the Terms "Work" and "Volume"

It is necessary to differentiate between "load x reps" and "load x time under tension" to develop accurate conclusions from training and rehabilitation research. Consider these two examples of idential work with volumes that differ by 100%: 10 reps/10kg/1:1:1 tempo, or 10 reps/10kg/3:1:2 tempo. The following definitions of "work" and "volume" are used throughout this course to aid in differentiating these terms.

 may be defined as "force x distance"; and was used to convey "load x reps".

 may be defined as "load x time under tension", and was used to convey the total amount of time that work was performed on a load.

Author's Note: How Important is Repetition Tempo?

The research investigating repetition tempo suggests that this acute variable is a secondary concern for most goals. Acute variables such as load and volume are often more strongly correlated with optimizing improvements and may dictate and/or allow for significant variability in tempo recommendations. For example, volume is likely more important for hypertrophy goals, suggesting that if sets are performed with repetitions-to-failure and each session is performed with the intent to iteratively increase volume, then slow, moderate, or maxV concentric tempos may be appropriate. The research does suggest that repetition tempo is a primary concern in optimizing training for peak velocity/power (explosive tempos are ideal), slower tempos are not appropriate for most maximal strength training goals, fast and explosive tempos are likely not ideal for volume dependent goals (endurance, hypertrophy, activation), and maxV tempos may be ideal for functional strength goals. The assertion that repetition tempo is a secondary concern both simplifies and complicates ideal repetition tempo recommendations. Although our recommendations include fewer goal-specific (unique) repetition tempos, these recommendations assume consideration will be given to the effect they have on more influential acute variables.

Phase 1 (4 - 8 weeks): Hypertrophy (Strength/Stability Supersets)

 Moderate (70-80% of 1-RM), (50 - 70% of 1-RM)

Circuit training, 30-60 sec rest between super-sets

Post-activation Potentiation (Max Strength and Power)

 Heavy (80 - 95% of 1-RM) (25 or more RM/set (50 % of 1-RM or Less)

Circuit training, 30-60 sec between exercises

Introduction

Testosterone, Human Growth Hormone (HGH), Cortisol, and Creatine Kinase:

 A slower tempo may result in larger increases in testosterone, HGH, creatine kinase, larger decreases in cortisol, and potentially larger increases in cross-sectional area (CSA). However, studies also suggest that post-exercise changes in hormone and enzyme levels may be less correlated with tempo and more strongly correlated with time-under-tension (volume).

These studies may imply that a slower tempo result in a larger increase in protein synthesis (and glycogen depletion); however, the study by Morton et al. suggests that tempo may be less influential than time under tension and/or performing reps until failure.

 Slower tempos may result in larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate concentration when comparing work matched exercise routines; however, changes in blood lactate may be similar when sets are performed until failure despite differing workloads. Further, larger increases in post-exercise blood lactate concentration may be exhibited when work increases with similar time under tension, for example, an increase in concentric contraction tempo with slow eccentric contractions tempos, or an increase in reps with an equal amount of time under tension.

Metabolic Risk Factors and Arterial Blood Flow:

 Resistance training is unlikely to have a significant effect on metabolic risk factors in healthy individuals; however, strength, hypertrophy, and basal arterial blood are likely to increase with high loads and faster tempos resulting in larger increases in basal arterial blood flow.

Repetition Tempo and Electromyographic Activity:

 Initial and peak EMG activity is higher for faster tempos and heavier loads regardless of tempo; however, average EMG activity over the duration of a set may be higher with slower tempos.

 EMG amplitude over the duration of a set decreases more when using larger loads and faster tempos, but EMG frequency may decrease more following a set to failure with a slower tempo and lighter loads.

 Slower tempos may result in larger increases in glycogen depletion, and/or larger increases in protein synthesis; however, these changes are not correlated with EMG activity.

 When total work (reps x load) is similar, slower tempos and longer time under tension result in larger increases in muscle EMG activity, post-exercise blood lactate concentrations, and potentially hypertrophy.

EMG Activity and Volume Matched Routines:

 When time-under-tension is equal, additional work/set (reps x load) may increase EMG activity. Further, self-paced tempos may be faster than moderate tempos (2:0:2) but are likely to result in more work with similar time-under-tension (2:0:2).

 Fast and explosive tempos may result in adaptations noted during activity that include an increase in peak muscle EMG activity, a decrease in muscle latency, and a decrease in muscle reaction time. However, these adaptations are unlikely to result in any increase post-exercise, resting EMG activity.

Cross-Sectional Area (CSA) and Work Matched Routines:

 Slower tempos result in larger increases in CSA when comparing work matched routines.

 Routines with different tempos, but similar volumes (load x time under tension) are likely to result in similar improvements in CSA. Further, additional volume is likely to increase CSA (and strength), regardless of the repetition tempo performed.

 The majority of studies demonstrate that when sets are performed until failure, slow, moderate, and fast tempos result in similar changes in CSA (and strength). However, two studies contradict these findings, demonstrating that slower tempos result in larger increases in CSA (and strength). These studies by Shepstone et al. and Assis-Pereira et al. may imply that tempo results in significant differences when the tempos are very different (300-1000% difference in time under tension/rep), and/or that small differences in CSA require more sensitive outcome measures to demonstrate statistical significance (e.g. mATPase histochemical analysis or ultrasound).

Concentric Versus Eccentric Contractions:

 Unfortunately, the two studies available on this topic imply contradictory conclusions. One study demonstrated that larger improvements in CSA followed a routine of longer duration concentric contractions, and the other demonstrated larger improvements following a routine of faster eccentric contractions. Although performing both during a rep is possible, these studies likely imply that other factors such as force production/load (intensity) have a larger influence on CSA than repetition tempo or concentric versus eccentric contractions.

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV): 

Compared to slow or moderate tempos, MaxV concentric contractions result in more improvement on outcome measures related to function and performance; however, improvements in muscle CSA are likely similar.

Preferential Hypertrophy of Muscle Fiber Types

 These studies suggest that tempo has little if any influence on the preferential hypertrophy of specific muscle fiber types. However, these studies do suggest that strength training with non-explosive tempos results in hypertrophy characterized by increases in both type I and type II fiber CSA, larger increases in type II fiber CSA, and potentially a transition from type IIx to IIa fibers that results in increased type IIa fiber proportion.

 Some studies have implied that larger increases in muscle fiber CSA may result from slow concentric tempos when compared to slow eccentric tempos, larger increases in CSA and more type IIx to type IIa fiber transition may result from heavier loads (and faster tempos), and significant increases in time under tension (volume) may result in larger increases in type II fiber CSA when compared to type I fiber CSA. Although these findings appear to imply preferential hypertrophy of specific muscle fiber types, it is as likely that they are different expressions of the same pattern of hypertrophy noted above, with some routines not achieving the same amount of hypertrophy; and therefore, statistical significance not being achieved for smaller magnitude measures (i.e. statistical significance was reached for type II fiber CSA, but was not for type I fiber CSA).

Non-explosive (slow, moderate, and fast tempos):

 Most studies suggest that tempo does not have a significant influence on strength gains when exercise volume is similar. Further, there is evidence to suggest that non-explosive tempos are only influential when a slower tempo results in a significant increase in volume.

: Slower velocities may result in improvements in strength for a larger range of velocities, slower tempos that result in more time-under-tension may result in larger improvements in endurance, and faster tempos (maxV) may result in larger improvements in peak velocity.

Older Exercisers and Velocity-specific Strength Gains:

 Similar to younger exercisers, studies suggest that older exercisers performing faster tempo may exhibit faster and larger improvements in peak velocity and muscle power when compared to strength training with slower tempos.

Monster walks with resistance for the gluteus maximus

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)

Young adults performing a maxV concentric tempo, when compared to slow or moderate tempo, may exhibit larger improvements in 1RM strength, maximum lifting velocity, and maximal power.

 When comparing slow, moderate and maxV concentric tempos, older participants may exhibit similar gains in strength and max strength; however, maxV concentric tempos are likely to result in larger improvements in peak velocity at various loads, peak power, and scores on a variety of functional tests including the short physical performance battery (SBBP), pan carry tests, sit-to-stand test, timed up-and-go test, and 10-minute walk test. 

 Older individuals performing supervised resistance training with maxV tempos may benefit from improvements in carry-over post-training; and further, maxV tempos incorporated into home-exercise programs may improve maintenance of muscle density and functional outcomes.

 Older individuals performing maxV concentric tempos, when compared to slow and moderate tempos, may exhibit superior improvements in strength and functional outcomes, as well as superior improvements in life quality and satisfaction scores.

Achieving superior strength, power, and/or functional outcomes from maxV concentric tempos may be limited to individuals who are capable of adapting to and benefiting from higher intensity exercise. This may suggest there is a limit to recommending maxV concentric tempos based on age and/or functional capacity.

 Resistance training with isokinetic equipment may be beneficial for improving strength and power; however, the tempo of isokinetic reps does not seem to have an effect on the magnitude of improvements.

Research demonstrates conflicting outcomes and small differences between groups, suggesting that non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, fast) result in similar improvements in power. Further, the studies by Morrissey et al. and Usui et al. suggest that variables such as intensity, volume, or reps until failure have a stronger influence on improvements.

 Moderate and fast tempos (non-explosive) are likely to result in similar improvements in power; however, maxV tempos may be more beneficial for increasing strength. 

 Fast and explosive tempos may result in significantly larger improvements in power outcomes for older adults; however, increases in power may also be specific to certain muscles (i.e. prime movers).

 Resistance training with heavier loads is likely to result in larger improvements in strength and velocity with heavier loads; however, lighter loads and explosive velocities are likely to result in larger improvements in velocity at lighter loads, peak velocity, peak power, jump height, sprint performance and mean propulsive velocity.

 Adult exercisers and athletes will attain similar benefits from resistance training with all non-explosive tempos (slow, moderate, and fast tempos). This implies that adult exercisers and athletes should perform resistance training for strength with a tempo that is optimal for increasing strength and potentially volume (load x time-under-tension), and when they train for increased velocity the tempos should be explosive.

Although power exercise should be recommended with caution to reduce the risk of injury, incorporating maxV concentric tempos into resistance training may be best practice for an elderly population.

: Very slow and super slow tempos may be superior to moderate tempos for improving endurance; however, when routines are matched for volume (load x time-under-tension) increases in strength and endurance are similar.

 When sets are performed until failure, and/or loads are adjusted to match a predetermined rep range or volume, super slow and very slow tempos result in inferior increases in strength. 

The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance

: Imposing a slower tempo may significantly decrease 1-RM strength; this finding includes slower eccentric tempos with volitional concentric tempos.

 Faster tempos, including self-paced tempos, are likely to result in more total work per set (and potentially more post-exercise circulating IGF-1) when performing sets to failure with submaximal loads.

Research Summary

The deadlift exercise, targeting lower body strength

Testosterone, Human Growth Hormone (HGH), Cortisol, and Creatine Kinase

Protein Synthesis

Striations in muscle cells, also showing the nucleus in the tissues as well

Blood Lactate and Arterial Blood Flow

Physiology

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstarting push-ups with resistance

Repetition Tempo versus Load

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a netural grip chest press

Comparing Work Matched and Volume Matched Routines

The box jump exercise used to improve lower body power

Tempo Specific EMG Adaptations

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity

 Note, in the following paragraphs it is presumed that cross-sectional area (CSA) is an objective measure of muscle hypertrophy.

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a single leg box jump

Comparing Work Matched Routines and Volume Matched Routines

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a hip bridge progression

Repetitions Until Failure

Concentric versus Eccentric Contractions

Dr. Brent Brookbush demonstrating a dumbbell chest press exercise

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)

Repetition Tempo and Preferential Hypertrophy of Specific Muscle Fiber Types

Hypertrophy

Non-explosive Tempos (Slow, Moderate, and Fast Tempos)

 Plyometric Medicine Ball Chest Pass 

Velocity Specific Strength Gains

Repetition Tempo and Strength

Studies have investigated the effects of a "maximum voluntary concentric tempo (MaxV)" during the concentric phase. Note, a maxV tempo should not be confused with the explosive tempos used during power training (e.g. medicine ball throws, box jumps, etc.). MaxV tempos are the fastest an individual can lift a load without a quick eccentric or the intent to leave the ground or throw.

MaxV Tempos and Young Adults

Trainer working with an older client

MaxV Tempos and Older Individuals

Sled pulls to improve sprint speed and power production

Equipment and Demographics

Repetition Velocity and Ideal Tempo for Power

Repetition Tempo and Power

Comparing Volume Matched Routines

Deadlift with Anterior to Posterior Pull

Load More Than Super Slow Tempo

Very and "Super" Slow Tempos

Repetition Tempo and One Repetition Maximum (1-RM) Strength

Repetition Tempo and Work Per Set

The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance

Sample Program

Physiology: Testosterone, Human Growth Hormone (HGH), Cortisol, and Creatine Kinase

Wilk, M., Stastny, P., Golas, A., Nawrocka, M., Jelen, K., Zajac, A. and Tufano, J. J. (2018) Physiological responses to different neuromuscular movement task during eccentric bench press. Neuroendocrinol Lett, 39(1), 26-32

Watanabe, Y., Tanimoto, M., Ohgane, A., Sanada, K., Miyachi, M. and Ishii, N. (2013) Increased muscle size and strength from slow-movement, low-intensity resistance exercise and tonic force generation. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 21, 71-84.

Smilios, I., Tsoukos, P., Zafeiridis, A., Spassis, A. and Tokmakidis, S. P. (2014) Hormonal responses after resistance exercise performed with maximum and submaximum movement velocities. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 39, 351-357, doi: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0147.

Headley, S. A., Henry, K., Nindl, B. C., Thompson, B. A., Kraemer, W. J., & Jones, M. T. (2011). Effects of lifting tempo on one-repetition maximum and hormonal responses to a bench press protocol. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(2), 406-413.

Burd, N. A., Andrews, R. J., West, D. W. D., Little, J. P., Cochran, A. J. R., Hector, A. J., Cashaback, J. G. A., Gibala, M. J., Potvin, J. R., Baker, S. K. and Phillips, S. M. (2012) Muscle time under tension during resistance exercise stimulates differential muscle protein sub-fractional synthetic responses in men. 

Morton, R. W., Sonne, M. W., Zuniga, A. F., Mohammad, I. Y. Z., Jones, A., McGlory, C., Keir, P. J., Potvin, J. R. and Phillips, S. M. (2019) Muscle fibre activation is unaffected by load and repetition duration when resistance exercise is performed to task failure. 

Physiology: Blood lactate and Arterial Blood Flow (and 2, 4)

Watanabe, Y., Madarame, H., Ogasawara, R., Nakazato, K. and Ishii, N. (2014) Effect of very low-intensity resistance training with slow movement on muscle size and strength in healthy older adults. 

Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging,

Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

Related Courses:

Course Description: Repetition Tempo

Course Study Guide: Acute Variables Repetition Tempo

Course Summary Webinar: Repetition Tempo

Introduction

Research Summary

Physiology
3 Sub Sections

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity
3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy
5 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Strength
2 Sub Sections

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)
2 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Power
2 Sub Sections

Very and "Super" Slow Tempos
2 Sub Sections

The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance
2 Sub Sections

Sample Program

Bibliography

Related Courses:

Comments

Guest

Acute Variables: Repetition Tempo

Related Courses:

Course Description: Repetition Tempo

Course Study Guide: Acute Variables Repetition Tempo

Course Summary Webinar: Repetition Tempo

Introduction

Research Summary

Physiology3 Sub Sections

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy5 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Strength2 Sub Sections

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)2 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Power2 Sub Sections

Very and "Super" Slow Tempos2 Sub Sections

The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance2 Sub Sections

Sample Program

Bibliography

Related Courses:

Comments

Guest

Physiology
3 Sub Sections

Electromyographic (EMG) Activity
3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy
5 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Strength
2 Sub Sections

Maximum Voluntary Concentric Tempo (MaxV)
2 Sub Sections

Repetition Tempo and Power
2 Sub Sections

Very and "Super" Slow Tempos
2 Sub Sections

The Effect of Tempo on Repetition Max and Set Performance
2 Sub Sections