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Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions Audio

Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

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I have almost completed my CPT certification and am half-way through the Human Movement certification to inform my massage practice. The different modalities of reading, watching audiovisual materials, and attending live or recorded webinars have been important to my learning style and for review.

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I have my personal trainer certificate through here and am almost finished my human movement specialist certification. Overall, the education that Brookbush has packaged together for clinicians and trainers is invaluable. I am a physio assistant so coming from more of a rehab background I appreciate that this education has been beneficial both as a trainer and in a rehab setting. I love that I have been able to do all learning at my own pace and able to work around my schedule. Thank you for setting up this platform! Highly recommend :)

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I have been following Brent Brookbush for nearly a decade- back when I was a personal Trainer and now as a Physical Therapist. BBI is an incredible resource for any movement nerds and corrective exercise specialists! The information is thorough with multiple real world applications. I am looking forward to an in-person Manual Therapist course the second they do one a little bit closer to Virginia ;)

I have taken both the Human Movement Specialist and Certified Personal Trainer certificate programs and have found the value in understanding the how and ways the body moves and functions and from evidence, non-biased, outcome, conceptual, theoretical, and practical approach to helping my clients/patients look better, feel better, and move better.

Over the last years I've returned time and again to Brookbush Institute for stellar coursework as I've worked toward a Human Movement Specialist certification. (I'm currently ACE CPT, and in training with Anatomy Trains for Structural Integration Manual Therapy.) Every Brookbush Institute module is fantastic and each one includes detailed informational videos, written descriptions of how to-do, and, more importantly, why to-do!

I am a 70 yr old chiropractor and no other healthcare provider was able to come up with an exercise protocol particular to my structural and balances and muscle deficits and keep me in the game. And as for continuing education on human skeletal movement, the website is phenomenal full of great exercises for particular mechanical dysfunction.

The H.M.S. is the most valuable certificate I have earned and was a fraction of the the cost of my others. Define the best bang for your buck!

Brookbush is the most efficient Personal Training Certification I have ever come across. All the lessons are well thought out and very straight to the point.

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Having courses count towards different certifications makes it so users can transition seamlessly from one certification to another. In my case, going from earning the BI CPT to earning the BI HMS was an easy decision and I am proud to have earned both certifications. I have also had the pleasure of going to a Live HMS workshop that was well taught by Instructor Boettcher and that was excellent to see how the methods and techniques are implemented.



I have been a member of BBI for years and every course I have taken has been incredibly informative. I learn more from these courses than I do at local CEU courses for my PTA license. I also earned my CPT and HMS certifications through the platform. It was so convenient and the content was top notch! Forever member.

We learn principles in academia, we learn cool new modalities via whatever specialty certification, but BBI really concentrates on the nuances of passive treatment and they do a fantastic job. The format in which BBI instructs soft tissue specialists (DPTs, Chiros, ATs) like myself feels like almost like an apprenticeship. You get a thoroughly detailed explanation of the “why’s”, and a visual comprehension of how to apply. Personally, I believe application is where the good and the great are distinguished.

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This course discusses training frequency and recovery between sessions. That is the optimal number of strength training sessions per week for similar muscle groups (sessions/muscle/week), and the optimal number of days of rest before the next training session for similar muscle groups. This includes the optimal frequency for building muscle, the number of days of rest required after a power training session to ensure that performance is optimal in the next session, and how frequency and recovery between sessions change drastically in the first few weeks of a new strength training program. Further, this course includes detailed recommendations based on age, training experience, training goal, and training type. Additional topics include delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), blood chemistry and creatine kinase, strength and power loss, and performance in subsequent sessions. 

Some findings from the included systematic research review resulted in counter-intuitive, or at least less conventional recommendations. For example, post-exercise decreases in strength, decreases in velocity, increases in DOMS, and increases in recovery time may be larger following increases in load and volume, but may not be affected by increases in velocity (power training). Or, young and middle-aged adults may exhibit larger decreases in post-exercise strength and potentially longer recovery times than adolescents, pre-adolescents, and older exercisers.

Movement professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, athletic trainers, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, etc.) should consider acute variables essential knowledge for optimal exercise programming, including training frequency and recovery between sessions. This course is part of our continued effort to optimize “acute variable” recommendations.

Training frequency and recovery between sessions should be based on the ability to achieve the same or better performance in subsequent sessions. Generally, more days rest should be given between initial sessions of a new routine and then increased to 2-3x/muscle group/week. For experienced exercisers, research suggests that it may not be possible to perform optimal volume and intensity with a frequency of 1 or fewer sessions/muscle group/week; 2 and 3 sessions/week result in similar improvements, and 4 sessions/muscle groups/week may result in less improvement (due to targeting similar muscle groups on consecutive days). In summary, the most efficient and effective recommendation may be a frequency of 

2 sessions/muscle group/week, with 2-3 days rest between sessions. However, during the initial sessions of a new routine, 3 sessions/muscle group/2 weeks with 3-7 days rest may be recommended.

: 2-3 sessions/muscle group/week and 2-5 days rest between sessions

: 3 sessions/muscle group/2 weeks and 3 - 7 days rest between sessions

Alternatively: Consider scheduling "de-loading weeks" after the first session of a new routine (not the last session of a routine).

The primary indicator of sufficient recovery

: Set performance, including set intensity (load or velocity), set volume (reps and time-under-tension), or total work/sets (reps x load x sets).

4 or more resistance training sessions/week necessitate split routines.

Recovery Time following Repeated Sessions:

The graph below is a visual depiction of the dramatic difference between 1st session and 2nd session recovery, using an approximated average response and representative values.

 Strength/Stability Super-sets and Circuit Training

 Moderate (75-90% of 1-RM); Lighter (60-75% of 1-RM)

Circuit training, 1 min rest between exercises

Upper Body: Monday, Friday, and the following Wednesday

Lower Body: Wednesday, the following Monday, and Friday

Single-leg alternating horizontal abduction

Transverse plane lunge to unilateral chest press

Frontal plane lunge to balance (front rack load)

Research Findings: Summary

Course Summary: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Course Summary Webinar: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery

Brookbush Institute Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Study Guide 

Study Guide: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

The soreness felt in muscles following exercise. Often with little to no soreness experienced immediately following exercise, peak values 1 - 3 days post-exercise, and complete recovery 3 - 7 days post-exercise. Generally, more DOMS is experienced following resistance training when compared to aerobic training, during the initial sessions of a new routine, and resistance training that includes more time performing eccentric contractions, reps-to-failure/set, heavier loads, and/or more volume (reps x load x sets).

The delay in peak soreness is not completely understood, but it is likely the result of the time course of the inflammatory process resulting from the muscle damage normally accompanying intense exercise.

 Time to return to pre-exercise (pre-intervention), pre-intervention, or pre-injury values. Generally, this is measured in days but may be measured in minutes, hours, or weeks.

Although this definition may initially appear obvious, comparative values must be defined (pre-intervention) to ensure an accurate interpretation of data. For example, if post-intervention range of motion (ROM) loss was an outcome measure, it could be compared to pre-intervention ROM, ROM of motion of the contralateral limb, or optimal ROM based on normative data (population averages). Recovery time would imply that the ROM was compared to the ROM prior to the event.

Increases in reps/set with a decrease in load (e.g. stability endurance training)

 The largest decrease in strength and power will be exhibited immediately post-exercise, with recovery to pre-exercise values 1-3 days post-exercise, and a potential increase in performance 3-5 days post-exercise.

Little to no soreness may be exhibited immediately post-exercise, with peak soreness exhibited 1 - 3 days post-exercise, and recovery 3 - 7 days post-exercise.

 No immediate increase in post-exercise serum concentrations of creatine kinase, with peak concentrations exhibited 3-7 days post-exercise, and elevated concentrations may still be exhibited 7-10 days post-exercise (recovery to pre-exercise values may require 5-14 days).

 The largest decrease in strength and power will be exhibited immediately post-exercise, with recovery to pre-exercise values 6 hours-2 days post-exercise, and a potential increase in performance 2-4 days post-exercise.

Little to no soreness may be exhibited immediately post-exercise, with peak soreness exhibited 1 - 2 days post-exercise, and recovery 2-4 days post-exercise.

 There may be no statistically significant post-exercise elevation in serum concentrations of creatine kinase.

The primary indicator of sufficient recovery should be set intensity.

Research suggests that set performance during a resistance training program likely has the largest influence on the magnitude of improvement achieved for hypertrophy, strength, and sports performance goals. Set performance includes set intensity (load or velocity), set volume (reps and time-under-tension), and/or total work (reps x load x sets). For example, the number of reps performed for a load, performing a load for a certain number of reps, or achieving a new record for total work (load x reps) during 3-4 sets. Although consideration may be given to volume per session or volume per week, research suggests that there are upper limits to the improvements that can be expected from increased volume. For example, research suggests 

little difference between 3 - 6 sets/muscle group/session,

 and little difference between 2 and 3 sessions/week. Note, some studies even show a decrease in performance when volume exceeds these upper limits.

Why not DOMS as a primary indicator of sufficient recovery?

Because set performance likely has the largest influence on the magnitude of improvements made from a resistance training program, it is recommended that strength and power during subsequent sessions is the primary indicator of sufficient recovery between sessions, and not delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). There is likely a correlation between post-exercise decreases in strength/power and DOMS; however, these variables often exhibit different peaks and recovery times. Many studies have demonstrated DOMS lasting 1-2 days longer than losses in strength and power, especially during initial sessions. Conversely, an absence of DOMS, despite 2-3 days of strength/power loss, is also common, especially following repeated sessions. Determining an ideal frequency or weekly routine does not have to be a complicated process involving force plates, 1 repetition maximum (1-RM) tests, and performance assessments. However, it is recommended that individuals try different resistance training schedules and determine their ideal schedule based on session performance and consider soreness a weak indicator of recovery status. Note, this research also implies that DOMS is not correlated with resistance training outcomes, and is a poor indicator of the session quality.

Position Statement and Practical Application

Research Findings: Blood Chemistry

Research Findings: Body Composition

Research Findings: Hypertrophy

Research Findings: Strength, Power, and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

Research Findings: Additional Topics

Research Findings

Frequency: Blood Chemistry

Recovery Time: Anabolic Hormones and Markers of Protein Synthesis

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Age

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Reps to Failure

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Acute Variables

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Repeated Sessions

Frequency: Blood Serum Markers of Lipids, Diabetes, and General Health

Blood Serum Concentrations

Frequency: Body Composition and Older Adults

Frequency: Body Composition and Young Adults

Frequency: Body Composition and Volume-equated Routines

Body Composition

Frequency and Recovery Time: Hypertrophy and Muscle Fiber Changes

Frequency and Recovery Time: Hypertrophy and Older Exercisers

Frequency: Hypertrophy, Young Adults, and Volume Equated Studies

Frequency: Additional Hypertrophy Findings

Hypertrophy

Frequency: Strength, Power, and Older Exercisers

Strength, Power, and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

Resistance training 2x/week or 3x/week is likely superior to 1x/week for increasing strength and power, and at least 1x/week is necessary to maintain strength and power. However, 2x/week or less may be the optimal frequency for athletes during in-season play.

A difference of 1 additional resistance training session/week may not be sufficient to result in a statistically significant increase in strength in 8 weeks; however, 3x - 4x/week may result in significantly larger improvements in strength than 1x-2x/week, especially during longer training periods.

Based on the study by Wikstrom-Frisen et al. (2017), larger improvements in lower extremity hypertrophy and strength may result from performing higher volume training (5x/week) during the first 2 weeks of the menstrual cycle; however, it should also be mentioned that this study could be demonstrating the effects of performing higher volume training with sufficient time for adaptation (group A performed higher volume training first).

Outcomes from resistance training with a frequency of 1-3x/week will be similar if the weekly volume of exercise is similar; however, 1x/week may be insufficient to optimize volume. Higher frequency resistance training (4x/week or more) may result in larger increases in strength, but only when higher frequencies are combined with periodized training and the lower volume of exercise/session permits more reps/set or increases in training load. Additionally, because research implies similar muscle groups should not be targeted on consecutive days, higher frequency resistance training (3x/week or more) should be combined with split routine programs.

Several studies have investigated strength and power following a change in training frequency after an initial training period (as is often the case when comparing pre-season and in-season training). An RCT by Graves et al. compared 50 novice exercisers (age: 25 ± 5 years) randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), 2x/week group, or 3x/week group. Participants performed knee extensions for 10 weeks or 18 weeks, 1 set/exercise, 7-10 RM/set, with a slow (4:0:2) tempo. The participants followed the 10 or 18 weeks with a reduction in training volume. The 2x/week group reduced frequency to 1x/week or 0x/week, and the 3x/week group reduced frequency to 2x/week, 1x/week, or 0x/week. Results demonstrated that the 3x/week group exhibited larger increases in isometric knee extension strength; however, training loads increased similarly for both groups. Strength was maintained for all groups that continued training 1x/week or 2x/week (104). Ronnestad et al. compared 19 Norwegian male professional soccer athletes (age: early to late '20s) who were assigned to resistance training 1x/week, or 1x/every other week, during their competitive season. This experiment followed a pre-season strengthening program with a frequency of 2x/week for 10 weeks. During the experiment, participants completed half squats for 12 weeks, 3 sets/session, 4-10 reps to failure/set, and a moderate (2-3:0:MaxV) rep tempo. The findings demonstrated that neither group exhibited significant changes in vertical jump or countermovement jump height, the 1x/week group maintained squat 1-RM strength and 40-meter sprint times, whereas the 1x/every other week group exhibited a significant reduction in squat 1-RM strength and 40-meter sprint times. This study likely implies that resistance training should be performed a minimum of 1x/week during a sporting season to maintain strength and power (105). DeRenne et al. compared 21 male baseball athletes (13.25 ± 1.26 years old) who were novice exercisers, following a pre-season protocol, and random assignment during the season to a 1x/week group or a 2x/week group. All participants completed a full-body resistance training program (bench press, wide-grip cable pulldowns, leg extensions, leg curls, bicep curls, tricep extensions, rotator cuff exercises, wrist curls, and wrist extensions). The pre-season program was performed by all participants for 12 weeks, 3x/week, 3 sets/exercise, 10 reps/set, with 50-100% of 10-RM loads. Participants were then randomly assigned to a 1x/week or 2x/week group for 12 weeks during the season, 3 sets/exercise, 10 reps/sets, and 50-75% 10-RM loads. The findings demonstrated both groups exhibited significant improvements during pre-season training (2x/week) for leg press 10-RM strength, bench press 10-RM strength, and pull-ups to failure. However, neither group exhibited additional improvements for leg presses and pull-ups during the season, and only the 1x/week group exhibited additional improvements for the bench press (3). These studies suggest that resistance training 2x/week or 3x/week is likely superior to 1x/week for increasing strength and power, and at least 1x/week is necessary to maintain strength and power. However, 2x/week or less may be the optimal frequency for athletes during in-season play.

A few studies have compared strength and power outcomes following training frequencies of 1 - 4x/week. An RCT by Faigenbaum et al. compared 56 adolescent novice exercisers (21 female, 35 male; age: 7.1-12.3 years) randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), a 1x/week group, or 2x/week group. Participants completed a full body program (abdominal curls, low back extensions, leg press, leg extension, leg curls, seated chest press, chest crossover, lat pulldowns, rows, shoulder press, bicep curls, and tricep extensions) for 8 weeks, 1 set/exercise, and 10-15 RM/set. Results demonstrated that neither exercise group exhibited significant improvements in isometric strength (handgrip dynamometer), power (vertical jump and long jump), or range of motion (sit and reach). Only the 2x/week group exhibited an increase in chest press 1-RM strength, and the 2x/week group exhibited significantly larger improvements in leg press 1-RM strength (106). Burt et al. compared 21 novice female exercisers (college-aged) randomly assigned to a 1x/week group or 2x/week group. The participants completed leg press for 8 weeks, for an unreported number of sets, 6-10 reps to failure/set, and a slow (4:0:4) rep tempo. The finding demonstrated that both groups exhibited a similar increase in leg press 6-RM strength (107). An RCT by Braith et al. compared 117 novice participants (age: 26 ± 5 years) randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), 2x/week group, or 3x/week group. Participants performed knee extensions for 10 weeks or 18 weeks, 1 set/exercise, 7-10 RM/set, with a slow (4:0:2) tempo. Results demonstrated that the 3x/week group exhibited larger increases in load during training (to maintain rep range), and larger increases in isometric knee extension strength (108). Serra et al. compared 45 novice male exercisers (aged: 40.3 ± 11.7 years) randomly assigned to a 2x/week group, 3x/week group, or 4x/week group. Participants completed a full body program (lat pulldowns, leg press, bench press machine, leg extensions, seated row machine, leg curls, shoulder press, and abdominal crunches) for 8 months, 3 sets/exercise, 10-12 RM/set, and a moderate (1-2 min) rest between sets and exercises. Results demonstrated similar improvements in bench press, leg press, and lat pulldown 10-RM strength; however, a trend was noted that the 4x/week group exhibited larger percent increases in strength (109). These studies suggest that a difference of 1 additional resistance training session/week may not be sufficient to result in a statistically significant increase in strength in 8 weeks; however, 3x - 4x/week may result in significantly larger improvements in strength than 1x-2x/week, especially during longer training periods.

Altered Frequency Based on Menstrual Cycle

One study (mentioned above) was located that compared outcomes following changes in resistance training frequency based on the menstrual cycle. An RCT by Wikstrom-Frisen et al. compared 59 experienced female exercisers (age: 24.5 ± 2.6 years) randomly assigned to a control group (leg training 3x/week), to group A (leg training 5x/week during the first two weeks of each cycle and 1x/week during the second 2 weeks of the cycle), or group B (leg training 1x/week during the first two weeks of each cycle and 5x/week during the second 2 weeks of the cycle). Leg training (leg press and leg curls) was performed for 16 weeks, 3 sets/exercise, 8-12 RM/set, with a moderate (1-2 min) rest between sets. Note, participants were able to complete upper-body resistance training as desired. The findings demonstrated that the use of oral contraceptives did not have an effect on outcomes. Group A exhibited significant increases in power and right knee extension peak torque when compared to controls; however, controls also exhibited significant improvements. Group B exhibited the least improvement. Additionally, only group A exhibited significant increases in lower body lean mass. Based on this study, larger improvements in lower extremity hypertrophy and strength may result from performing higher volume training (5x/week) during the first 2 weeks of the menstrual cycle; however, it should also be mentioned that this study could be demonstrating the effects of performing higher volume training with sufficient time for adaptation (group A performed higher volume training first) (95).

Several studies have compared strength improvements following volume-equated programs with different resistance training frequencies. Crane et al. compared 30 experienced exercisers (age: 18-30 years) randomly assigned to a 1x/week group or a 3x/week group. Participants completed eccentric-only single-leg leg press for 4 weeks, 2 sets/session, a progressive increase in 50-75% of eccentric load, and a moderate (2-min) rest between sets. The 1x/week group performed 3 min of time under tension/set, the 3x/week group performed 2 min of time under tension/set. Note, this study reported 23 repetitions/minute during strength testing but did not clarify if the same reps/minute was used during resistance training. Results demonstrated similar improvements in eccentric strength and vertical jump height when compared to baseline. Further, results demonstrated that the 1x/week group resulted in higher ratings of perceived exertion and ratings of perceived soreness when compared to the 3x/week group (64). Fortes et al. compared 36 experienced male exercisers (age: 18-30 years) randomly assigned to groups performing a volume-equated resistance training program with a frequency of 1x/week, 2x/week, or 3x/week. All participants completed a full-body program (bench press, leg press, seated rows, squats, shoulder press, and leg curls) for 24 weeks. The 1x/week group performed 6 sets/exercise, the 2x/week group performed 3 sets/exercise, and 3x/week group performed 2 sets/exercise. All groups performed 10 RM/set, and a moderate (2 min) rest between sets and exercises. Results demonstrated all groups exhibited significant and similar improvements in 10-RM strength for bench press, leg press, seated row, squat, shoulder press, and leg curl 10-RM (110). An RCT by Arazi et al. compared 39 novice male exercisers (age: 20.33 ± 1.8 years) who were randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), or groups performing resistance training 1x/week, 2x/week, or 3x/week. Note, the 1x/week group completed a full body program during each session, the 2x/week group completed 1 upper and 1 lower body session/week, and the 3x/week group completed 2 upper and 2 lower body sessions/week. All participants completed the same exercises (leg presses, leg curls, leg extensions, calf raises, lat pulldowns, rows, bench press, peck flys, bicep curls, dumbbell bicep curls, tricep press downs, and tricep extensions) for 8 weeks, an unknown number of sets/exercise but groups were matched for weekly volume, 6-12 reps/set, 60-80% 1-RM loads (periodization), and a moderate (2-3 min) rest period. All groups exhibited significant and similar improvements in bench press 1-RM strength, leg press 1-RM strength, and leg press endurance (reps to failure with 60% 1-RM); however, the 2x/week and 3x/week groups exhibited significantly larger improvements in bench press endurance (58). These studies imply that outcomes from resistance training with a frequency of 1-3x/week will be similar if the weekly volume of exercise is similar; however, 1x/week may be insufficient to optimize volume.

Additional studies consider the effects of higher training frequencies (4x/week or more) when the volume of training per week is equated. Another RCT by Arazi et al. compared 35 experienced male exercisers (age: 19.9 ± 1.6 years) randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), a 2x/week group, or a 4x/week group (volume equated). Participants completed a full body program (leg press, leg curls, lat pulldowns, bench press, lateral raise, bicep curls, tricep extensions, leg extensions, deadlifts, rows, incline bench press, military press) for 8 weeks, using 8-10 reps/set, 70-80% 1-RM loads, short (1-1.5 min) rest between sets, and moderate (2-3 min) rest between exercises. All exercisers exhibited similar improvements in power (countermovement jump height and medicine ball throw distance), leg press 1-RM strength, and leg press endurance (reps to failure with 60% 1-RM loads). However, the 4x/week group exhibited larger increases in bicep curl 1-RM strength, bench press 1-RM strength, and bench press endurance (89). Ribeiro et al. compared 10 male bodybuilders (age: 26 ± 2.7 years) randomly assigned to a 4x/week group or a 6x/week group. Note, both groups exercised each muscle group 2x/week. Participants completed the same exercises as part of a 2-day or 3-day split routine (bench press, incline dumbbell flys, cable crossovers, barbell military press, lateral raises, lying triceps French press, triceps pushdowns, standing calf raises, seated calf raises, crunches, cable crunches, v-bar pulldowns, bent over barbell rows, seated cable rows, arm curls, alternate incline dumbbell curls, seated palm-up wrist curls, seated palm-down barbell wrist curls, squats, leg extensions, lying leg curls, oblique crunches, and seated leg tucks) for 4 weeks, 4 sets/exercise, 6-12 reps to failure/set (pyramid sets 12, 10, 8, and then 6 reps/set), moderate (1-2 min) rest between sets, moderate (2-3 min) rest between exercises, and a rep tempo ratio of 2:1 (eccentric to concentric). Results demonstrated that both groups exhibited similar improvements in 1-RM bench press strength (69). Last, an RCT by Firoozi et al. compared 33 experienced male exercisers (age: 21.9 ± 1.3 years) randomly assigned to a control group (no exercise), a 3x/week group or a 4x/week group. Participants completed a split routine (exercises included in the program: squats, knee extensions, barbell bench press, barbell incline bench press, dumbbell bench press, barbell arm curls, dumbbell arm curls, arm curls with EZ bar, military press, behind the head military press, dumbbell lateral raises, dumbbell tricep extensions, lying close grip triceps press, incline triceps extensions, deadlifts, leg curls, leg press, dumbbell lunges, calf raises, lat pulldowns behind the head, barbell rear delt rows, rear deltoid rows, hyperextensions, and abdominal crunches) for 8 weeks, 3 sets/exercise, 8 reps/set, 65-80% of 1-RM loads (periodized), moderate (1-1.5-min) rest between sets, and moderate (2-3 min) rest between exercises. Volume was equated by the total number of exercises performed per session, with each group performing the same exercises. The 3x/week group performed more exercises per routine - Day 1: legs, chest, and biceps; Day 2: shoulders, triceps, and legs; Day 3: legs, back, and core. The 4x/week group performed fewer exercises per routine - Day 1: legs and arms; Day 2: legs and chest; Day 3: legs and shoulders, Day 4: back, legs, and core. Results demonstrated neither group exhibited a significant change in bench press or leg press endurance (reps to failure with 60% 1-RM); however, both groups exhibited significant improvements in 1-RM strength. The 3x/week group exhibited significantly larger increases in bench press and leg press 1-RM strength. Additionally, the 3x/week group exhibited significantly larger increases in thigh circumference, and the 4x/week group exhibited significantly larger increases in chest circumference. The results of this study are puzzling due to the way the exercises were split throughout the routines; for example, the legs and arms are included every day of each program, but specific exercises for the chest, back, and shoulder are only included 1 day each week. This study may suggest that fewer high-quality sets (and exercises) are more beneficial for upper body training (upper body program for 4x/week group), and that training similar muscle groups on consecutive days is deleterious to hypertrophy (lower body program for 4x/week group) (94). In summary, higher frequency resistance training (4x/week or more) may result in larger increases in strength, but only when higher frequencies are combined with periodized training and the lower volume of exercise/session permits more reps/set or increases in training load. Additionally, because research implies similar muscle groups should not be targeted on consecutive days, higher frequency resistance training (3x/week or more) should be combined with split routine programs.

Recovery Time: Strength, Power, and Reps-to-Failure/Set

Recovery Time: Strength, DOMS, and Exercise Type

Recovery Time: Strength, Power, DOMS, and Acute Variables

Recovery Time: Strength, DOMS and Repeated Sessions

Recovery Time: Strength, Power, Gender, and Age

Recovery Time: DOMS, Gender, and Age

Frequency: Strength, Power, and Young Exercisers

Frequency and Recovery Time: EMG Activity

Frequency: Bone Mineral Density, Resting Blood Pressure, Functional Testing, and Psychosocial Improvements

Frequency: Rehabilitation and Core Muscle Exercise

Recovery Time: Individual Differences

Pivotal Studies: Work, EMG activity, Lactate Concentrations, and Days Rest

Additional Topics

Marx, J. O., Ratamess, N. A., Nindl, B. C., Gotshalk, L. A., Volek, J. S., Dohi, K., Bush, J. A., Gomez, A. L., Mazzetti, S. A., Fleck, S. J., Hakkinen, K., Newton, R. U., and Kraemer, W. J. (2001) Low-volume circuit versus high-volume periodized resistance training in women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(4), 635-643

Stec, M. J., Thalacker-Mercer, A., Mayhew, D. L., Kelly, N. A., Tuggle, S. C., Merritt, E. K., Brown, C. J., Windham, S. T., Dell'Italia, L. J., Bickel, C. S., Roberts, B. M., Vaughn, K. M., Isakova-Donahue, I., Many, G. M. and Bamman, M. M. (2017) Randomized, four-arm, dose-response clinical trial to optimize resistance exercise training for older adults with age-related muscle atrophy. Experimental Gerontology, 99, 98-109

DeRenne, C., Hetzler, R. K., Buxton, B. P., & Ho, K. W. (1996). Effects of training frequency on strength maintenance in pubescent baseball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 10, 8-14.

Walker, S., Serrano, J., van Roie, E. (2018). Maximum dynamic lower-limb strength was maintained during 24-week reduced training frequency in previously sedentary older women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(4), 1063-1071.

Nascimento, M. A. D., Gerage, A. M., da Silva, D. R. P., Ribeiro, A. S., da Silva Machado, D. G., Pina, F. L. C. P., Tomeleri, C. M., Venturini, D., Barbosa, D. S., Mayhew, J. L. and Cyrino, E. S. (2018) Effect of resistance training with different frequencies and subsequent detraining on muscle mass and appendicular lean soft tissue, IGF-1, and testosterone in older women. European Journal of Sport Science, doi: 10.1080-17461391.2018.1496145

Padilha, C. S., Ribeiro, A. S., Fleck, S. J., Nascimento, M. A., Pina, F. L. C., Okino, A. M., Venturini, D., Barbosa, D. S., Mayhew, J. L. and Cyrino, E. S. (2015) Effect of resistance training with different frequencies and detraining on muscular strength and oxidative stress biomarkers in older women. AGE, 37(104), doi: 10.1007/s11357-015-9841-6.

Haun, C. T., Mumford, P. W., Roberson, P. A., Romero, M. A., Mobley, C. B., Kephart, W. C., ... & Roberts, M. D. (2017). Molecular, neuromuscular, and recovery responses to light versus heavy resistance exercise in young men. Physiological reports, 5(18), e13457.

Ahtiainen, J. P., Lehti, M., Hulmi, J. J., Kraemer, W. J., Alen, M., Nyman, K., Selanne, H., Pakarinen, A., Komulainen, J., Kovanen, V., Mero, A. A., & Hakkinen, K. (2011) Recovery after heavy resistance exercise and skeletal muscle androgen receptor and insulin-like growth factor-I isoform expression in strength trained men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(3), 767-777

Linnamo, V., Pakarinen, A., Komi, P. V., Kraemer, W. J., & Häkkinen, K. (2005). Acute hormonal responses to submaximal and maximal heavy resistance and explosive exercises in men and women. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 19(3), 566.

Pareja-Blanco, F., Rodriguez-Rosell, D., & Gonzalez-Badillo, J. J. (2019). Time course of recovery from resistance exercise before and after a training program. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 59(9), 1458-1465.

González-Badillo, J. J., Rodríguez-Rosell, D., Sánchez-Medina, L., Ribas, J., López-López, C., Mora-Custodio, R., ... & Pareja-Blanco, F. (2016). Short-term recovery following resistance exercise leading or not to failure. International journal of sports medicine, 37(04), 295-304.

Morán-Navarro, R., Pérez, C. E., Mora-Rodríguez, R., de la Cruz-Sánchez, E., González-Badillo, J. J., Sánchez-Medina, L., & Pallarés, J. G. (2017). Time course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure. European journal of applied physiology, 117(12), 2387-2399.

Sikorski, E. M., Wilson, J. M., Lowery, R. P., Joy, J. M., Laurent, C. M., Wilson, S. M., ... & Gilchrist, P. (2013). Changes in perceived recovery status scale following high-volume muscle damaging resistance exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(8), 2079-2085

Ahtiainen, J. P., Pakarinen, A., Kraemer, W. J., & Häkkinen, K. (2003). Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery to forced vs. maximum repetitions multiple resistance exercises. International journal of sports medicine, 24(06), 410-418.

Bell, K. E., Séguin, C., Parise, G., Baker, S. K., & Phillips, S. M. (2015). Day-to-day changes in muscle protein synthesis in recovery from resistance, aerobic, and high-intensity interval exercise in older men. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 70(8), 1024-1029.

Bamman, M. M., Shipp, J. R., Jiang, J., Gower, B. A., Hunter, G. R., Goodman, A., ... & Urban, R. J. (2001). Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 280(3), E383-E390.

Chen, T. C., Chen, H. L., Liu, Y. C., & Nosaka, K. (2014). Eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage of pre-adolescent and adolescent boys in comparison to young men. European journal of applied physiology, 114, 1183-1195.

Fernandes, J. F., Lamb, K. L., & Twist, C. (2019). Exercise-induced muscle damage and recovery in young and middle-aged males with different resistance training experience. Sports, 7(6), 132.

Arroyo, E., Wells, A. J., Gordon III, J. A., Varanoske, A. N., Gepner, Y., Coker, N. A., ... & Hoffman, J. R. (2017). Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and soluble TNF-alpha receptor responses in young vs. middle-aged males following eccentric exercise. Experimental Gerontology, 100, 28-35.

Gordon III, J. A., Hoffman, J. R., Arroyo, E., Varanoske, A. N., Coker, N. A., Gepner, Y., ... & Fukuda, D. H. (2017). Comparisons in the recovery response from resistance exercise between young and middle-aged men. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(12), 3454-3462.

Lavender, A. P., & Nosaka, K. (2008). Changes in markers of muscle damage of middle-aged and young men following eccentric exercise of the elbow flexors. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11(2), 124-131.

Heckel, Z., Atlasz, T., Tékus, É., Kőszegi, T., Laczkó, J., & Váczi, M. (2019). Monitoring exercise-induced muscle damage indicators and myoelectric activity during two weeks of knee extensor exercise training in young and old men. PLoS One, 14(11), e0224866.

Nikolaidis, M. G. (2017). The effects of resistance exercise on muscle damage, position sense, and blood redox status in young and elderly individuals. Geriatrics, 2(3), 20.

Clarkson, P. M., & Dedrick, M. E. (1988). Exercise-induced muscle damage, repair, and adaptation in old and young subjects. Journal of gerontology, 43(4), M91-M96.

Lavender, A. P., & Nosaka, K. (2006). Responses of old men to repeated bouts of eccentric exercise of the elbow flexors in comparison with young men. European journal of applied physiology, 97, 619-626.

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Reps to Failure (and 10 - 12)

Davies, R. W., Carson, B. P., & Jakeman, P. M. (2018) Sex differences in the temporal recovery of neuromuscular function following resistance training in resistance trained men and women 18 to 35 years. Frontiers in Physiology, 9. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01480

Mangine, G. T., Serafini, P. R., Stratton, M. T., Olmos, A. A., VanDusseldorp, T. A., & Feito, Y. (2022). Effect of the repetitions-in-reserve resistance training strategy on bench press performance, perceived effort, and recovery in trained men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1), 1-9.

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Acute Variables (and 16,

Jamurtas, A. Z., Theocharis, V., Tofas, T., Tsiokanos, A., Yfanti, C., Paschalis, V., ... & Nosaka, K. (2005). Comparison between leg and arm eccentric exercises of the same relative intensity on indices of muscle damage. European journal of applied physiology, 95, 179-185.

Saka, T., Akova, B., Yazici, Z., Sekir, U., Gür, H., & Ozarda, Y. (2009). Difference in the magnitude of muscle damage between elbow flexors and knee extensors eccentric exercises. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 8(1), 107.

Chen, T. C., Lin, K. Y., Chen, H. L., Lin, M. J., & Nosaka, K. (2011). Comparison in eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage among four limb muscles. European journal of applied physiology, 111, 211-223.

Chen, T. C., Huang, G. L., Hsieh, C. C., Tseng, K. W., Tseng, W. C., Chou, T. Y., & Nosaka, K. (2020). Comparison among three different intensities of eccentric contractions of the elbow flexors resulting in the same strength loss at one day post-exercise for changes in indirect muscle damage markers. European journal of applied physiology, 120, 267-279.

Nosaka, K., Newton, M., & Sacco, P. (2002). Delayed‐onset muscle soreness does not reflect the magnitude of eccentric exercise‐induced muscle damage. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 12(6), 337-346.

Macaluso, F., Isaacs, A. W., & Myburgh, K. H. (2012). Preferential type II muscle fiber damage from plyometric exercise. Journal of athletic training, 47(4), 414-420

Thomas, K., Brownstein, C., Dent, J., Parker, P., Goodall, S., & Howatson, G. (2018). Neuromuscular fatigue and recovery after heavy resistance, jump, and sprint training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(12), 2526-2535.

Recovery Time: Markers of Muscle Damage and Repeated Sessions (and 10, 17, 24)

Chen, T. C., Yang, T. J., Huang, M. J., Wang, H. S., Tseng, K. W., Chen, H. L., & Nosaka, K. (2019). Damage and the repeated bout effect of arm, leg, and trunk muscles induced by eccentric resistance exercises. Scandinavian journal of medicine & science in sports, 29(5), 725-735.

Coratella, G., Chemello, A., & Schena, F. (2016). Muscle damage and repeated bout effect induced by enhanced eccentric squats. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 56(12), 1540-1546.

Hortobágyi, T., Houmard, J., Fraser, D., Dudek, R., Lambert, J., & Tracy, J. (1998). Normal forces and myofibrillar disruption after repeated eccentric exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84(2), 492-498.

Chen, T. C., Chen, H. L., Lin, M. J., Wu, C. J., & Nosaka, K. (2009). Muscle damage responses of the elbow flexors to four maximal eccentric exercise bouts performed every 4 weeks. European journal of applied physiology, 106, 267-275.

Hody, S., Rogister, B., Leprince, P., Laglaine, T., & Croisier, J. L. (2013). The susceptibility of the knee extensors to eccentric exercise‐induced muscle damage is not affected by leg dominance but by exercise order. Clinical physiology and functional imaging, 33(5), 373-380.

Campa, F., Latessa, P. M., Greco, G., Mauro, M., Mazzuca, P., Spiga, F. and Toselli, S. (2020) Effects of different resistance training frequencies on body composition, cardiometabolic risk factors, and handgrip strength in overweight and obese women: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 5(51), doi: 10.3390/jfmk5030051.

Pina, F. L. C., Nunes, J. P., Ribeiro, A. S., Nascimento, M. A., Cyrino, L. T., Carneiro, N. H., Venturini, D., Barbosa, D. S., Mayhew, J. L., and Cyrino, E. S. (2020) Comparison of the effects of different weekly frequencies of resistance training on metabolic health markers and body fat in older women. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 60, 618-624.

Ihalainen, J. K., Inglis, A., Makinen, T., Newton, R. U., Kainulainen, H., Kyrolainen, H. and Walker, S. (2019) Strength training improves metabolic health markers in older individual regardless of training frequency. Frontiers in Physiology, 32(10), doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00032

Magalhães, A. C. L. D., Carvalho, V. F., Cruz, S. P. D., & Ramalho, A. (2022). Dose–Response Relationship of Resistance Training on Metabolic Phenotypes, Body Composition and Lipid Profile in Menopausal Women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(16), doi: 10.3390/ijerph191610369.

Sawada, S. S., Gando, Y., Kawakami, R., Blair, S. N., Lee, I. M., Tamura, Y., Tsuda, H., Saito, H. and Miyachi, M. (2019) Combined aerobic and resistance training, and incidence of diabetes: A retrospective cohort study in Japanese older women. Journal of diabetes investigation, 10(4), 997-1003.

Frequency: Body Composition and Older Adults (and 2, 40, 41, 43)

Ribeiro, A. S., Nascimento, M. A., Schoenfeld, B. J., Nunes, J. P., Aguiar, A. F., Cavalcante, E. F., Silva, A. M., Sardinha, L. B., Fleck, S. J. and Cyrino, E. S. (2018) Effects of single set resistance training with different frequencies on a cellular health indicator in older women. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 26, 537-543

Pina, F. L. C., Nunes, J. P., Nascimento, M. A., Ribeiro, A. S., Mayhew, J. L. and Cyrino, E. S. (2019) Similar effects of 24 weeks of resistance training performed with different frequencies on muscle strength, muscle mass, and muscle quality in older women. International Journal of Exercise Science, 12(6), 623-635.

Fisher, G., McCarthy, J. P., Zuckerman, P. A., Bryan, D. R., Bickel, C. S. and Hunter, G. R. (2013) Frequency of combined resistance and aerobic training in older women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(7), 1868-1876, doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31827367e0

Taaffe, D. R., Duret, C., Wheeler, S. and Marcus, R. (1999) Once-weekly resistance exercise improves muscle strength and neuromuscular performance in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47 (10), 1208-1214

Fernandez-Lezaun, E., Schumann, M., Makinen, T., Kyrolainen, H. and Walker, S. (2017) Effects of resistance training frequency on cardiorespiratory fitness in older men and women during intervention and follow-up. Experimental Gerontology, 95, 44-53, doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2017.05.01

Cavalcante, E. F., Ribeiro, A. S., do Nascimento, M. A., Silva, A. M., Tomeleri, C. M., Nabuco, H. C. G., Pina, F. L. C., Mayhew, J. L., da Silva-Grigoletto, M. E., da silva, D. R. P., Fleck, S. J. and Cyrino, E. S. (2018) Effects of different resistance training frequencies on fat in overweight/obese older women. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 527-534

Pieczynska, A., Zasadzka, E., Trzmiel, T., Pyda, M. and Pawlaczyk, M. (2021) The effect of mixed circuit of aerobic and resistance training on body composition in older adults - retrospective study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, doi: 10.3390/ijerph18115608

Toselli, S., Badicu, G., Bragonzoni, L., Spiga, F., Mazzuca, P. and Campa, F. (2020) Comparison of the effect of different resistance training frequencies on phase angle and handgrip strength in obese women: a randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 1163, doi: 10.3390/ijerph1701163

Richardson, D. L., Duncan, M. J., Jimenez-Gutierrez, A., Juris, P. M. and Clarke, N. D (2019) Effects of movement velocity and training frequency of resistance exercise on functional performance in older adults: a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Sport Science, 19(2), 234-246.

Fernandez-Lezaun, E., Schumann, M., Makinen, T., Kyrolainen, H. and Walker, S. (2017) Effects of resistance training frequency on cardiorespiratory fitness in older men and women during intervention and follow-up. Experimental Gerontology, 95, 44-53, doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2017.05.012

Nakamura, Y., Tanaka, K., Yabushita, N., Sakai, T. and Shigematsu, R. (2007) Effects of exercise frequency on functional fitness in older adult women. Arhives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 44, 163-173

Westcott, W. L., Winett, R. A., Annesi, J. J., Wojcik, J. R., Anderson, E. S. and Madden, P. J. (2009) Prescribing physical activity: applying the ACSM protocols for exercise type, intensity, and duration across 3 training frequencies. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 2(37), 51-58.

Frequency: Body Composition and Young Adults (and 1)

Lee, H., Kim, I. G., Sung, C. and Kim, J. S. (2017) The effect of 12-week resistance training on muscular strength and body composition in untrained young women: implications of exercise frequency. Journal of Exercise Physiology - online, 20(4), 88-95

Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Related Courses:

Course Summary: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions
1 Sub Section

Course Summary Webinar: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Study Guide: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Position Statement and Practical Application
1 Sub Section

Research Findings
5 Sub Sections

Blood Serum Concentrations
7 Sub Sections

Body Composition
3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy
4 Sub Sections

Strength, Power, and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
1 Sub Section

Frequency: Strength, Power, and Young Exercisers
6 Sub Sections

Additional Topics
5 Sub Sections

Bibliography

Related Courses:

Comments

Guest

Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Related Courses:

Course Summary: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions1 Sub Section

Course Summary Webinar: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Study Guide: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions

Position Statement and Practical Application1 Sub Section

Research Findings5 Sub Sections

Blood Serum Concentrations7 Sub Sections

Body Composition3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy4 Sub Sections

Strength, Power, and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)1 Sub Section

Frequency: Strength, Power, and Young Exercisers6 Sub Sections

Additional Topics5 Sub Sections

Bibliography

Related Courses:

Comments

Guest

Course Summary: Acute Variables: Training Frequency and Recovery Between Sessions
1 Sub Section

Position Statement and Practical Application
1 Sub Section

Research Findings
5 Sub Sections

Blood Serum Concentrations
7 Sub Sections

Body Composition
3 Sub Sections

Hypertrophy
4 Sub Sections

Strength, Power, and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)
1 Sub Section

Frequency: Strength, Power, and Young Exercisers
6 Sub Sections

Additional Topics
5 Sub Sections