Acute Variables: Periodization Training

This course discusses "periodization training," strategies for manipulating acute training variables, particularly training intensity, during a resistance training program. Further, this course clarifies the definitions, structure, and categorization of periodization models, distinguishing between frequency, direction, and method of intensity change (e.g., daily undulating, linear, autoregulated). With the intent to achieve unparalleled accuracy, this course was built from a systematic review of all available peer-reviewed and published comparative research.

Contrary to previous publications, this systematic review demonstrated that periodized and non-periodized programs resulted in similar improvements in endurance, strength, power, and hypertrophy. Research suggests that, when compared to periodization, improvements are more strongly influenced by prolonged exposure to goal-specific rep ranges, intensities, and repetition tempos. The research also demonstrates that novice, obese, and older adults benefit equally from periodized and non-periodized programs. However, experienced individuals may achieve larger improvements in strength and hypertrophy from periodized training programs, particularly true linear and daily undulating programs. This course also examines several "special topics," including menstrual-cycle-aligned programming, reps-in-reserve -based strategies, and the effects of periodization on functional outcomes.

This course will help learners identify and label periodization strategies, determine evidence-based "best practice" recommendations, and develop individualized programs.

Research-based Recommendations:

Included in All Programs:

• Exposure: Maximize exposure to goal-specific acute variables
• Auto-regulation: Frequent, adaptive intra-session or session-to-session load adjustments

Novice Exercisers: All Goals

• Periodization is not influential: Do not increase the complexity of the program with periodized strategies. For at least the initial 12 weeks, perform moderate loads and reps/set and auto-regulated load adjustments.

Experienced Exercisers:

• Endurance, Strength, Hypertrophy
  • Linear Periodization
  • Daily Undulation
• Power Training
  • Periodization is not recommended; perform power training throughout a program and progress using autoregulated strategies.

Periodization Training Terms:

• Frequency of Intensity Change
  • Daily Undulation : Daily undulating periodization modifies training intensity on a session-to-session basis.
  • Weekly Undulation : Weekly undulating periodization modifies training intensity on a weekly basis.
  • Block Periodization : Block periodization modifies training intensity with each training block (typically 2 to 8 weeks long).
• Direction of Intensity Change
  • Linear : Linear periodization is a periodized training strategy in which intensity increases unidirectionally over time.
  • Reverse-linear : Reverse-linear periodization is a periodized training strategy in which intensity decreases unidirectionally over time.
  • Non-linear : Non-linear periodization is a strategy in which intensity does not follow a consistent directional progression
• Methods of Intensity Change
  • Auto-regulated : Autoregulated periodization refers to training intensity that is adjusted in real time based on an individual's performance, fatigue, or readiness.
  • Fixed (Predetermined) Progression : Fixed progression refers to the method of adjusting intensity according to a predetermined plan, without consideration for day-to-day variability in performance or recovery.
• Additional Terms
• Note: These additional terms are still used in the literature, but in practice, they are often replaced with simpler and more descriptive language (e.g., program, phase, and day).
  • Macrocycle : A macrocycle is a long-term training plan, typically lasting several months to a year, designed to achieve an overarching performance goal. This term is most often replaced with "program."
  • Mesocycle : A mesocycle is a medium-length block of training within a traditional periodized program, often lasting 3 to 12 weeks. Generally, it targets specific adaptations (e.g., endurance, hypertrophy, strength, or power) that complement the overall goal of the macrocycle. This term is most often replaced with "phase."
  • Microcycle : A microcycle is the shortest structured unit of time in a periodized training program, typically lasting a day to 1-2 weeks, and includes the detailed schedule of workouts that reflect the goal of the mesocycle. This term is most often replaced with "day" or "routine."

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ):

What is periodization in strength training?

• Periodization is the planned manipulation of training variables, such as load, volume, and exercise selection, to optimize performance and reduce the risk of overtraining. It often involves changing intensity over time in a structured manner.

Is periodization the most important thing to get right for training?

• No. Research suggests that consistent exposure to goal-specific variables (e.g., heavy loads for strength, moderate loads for hypertrophy) and autoregulated load adjustments may be more important than following a strict periodization model.

Is periodization good for beginners?

• Not necessarily. Beginners often experience similar improvements with or without periodization. For at least the first 12 weeks, moderate loads with autoregulated adjustments are often sufficient.

What is an example of periodization?

• A daily undulating program might involve hypertrophy training (10–12 reps) on Monday, strength training (4–6 reps) on Wednesday, and power training (3–5 reps) on Friday—each with different loads and repetition ranges.

What’s the difference between daily undulating and block periodization?

• Daily undulating periodization changes intensity every session, while block periodization keeps intensity consistent over multiple weeks before changing.

What is autoregulated periodization?

• Autoregulated periodization adjusts training intensity based on real-time performance (e.g., using RPE or reps-in-reserve) rather than following a predetermined schedule.

Can you combine periodization strategies?

• Yes. Programs can combine block structures with linear or undulating progression, and also include autoregulated methods within each phase.

Testosterone and Cortisol

• Pacobahyba, N., Vale, R. G. D. S., Souza, S. L. P. D., Simão, R., Santos, E., & Dantas, E. H. M. (2012). Muscle strength, serum basal levels of testosterone and urea in soccer athletes submitted to non-linear periodization program. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 18, 130-133.
• Souza, S., Vale, R., Kauffmann, A., Pacobahyba, N., Miranda, H., Lima, R., & Dantas, E. (2010). Effects of non-linear periodisation training on the explosive force and plasma testosterone. Biomedical Human Kinetics, 2(2010), 97-101.
• Kraemer, W. J., Hakkinen, K., Triplett-McBride, N. T., Fry, A. C., Koziris, L. P., Ratamess, N. A., ... & Knuttgen, H. G. (2003). Physiological changes with periodized resistance training in women tennis players. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 35(1), 157-168.
• Zourdos, M. C., Jo, E., Khamoui, A. V., Lee, S. R., Park, B. S., Ormsbee, M. J., ... & Kim, J. S. (2016). Modified daily undulating periodization model produces greater performance than a traditional configuration in powerlifters. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(3), 784-791.
• Painter, K. B., Haff, G. G., Triplett, N. T., Stuart, C., Hornsby, G., Ramsey, M. W., ... & Stone, M. H. (2018). Resting hormone alterations annd injuries: Block vs. DUP weight-training among D-1 track and field athletes. Sports, 6(1), 3.
• Bartolomei, S., Hoffman, J. R., Stout, J. R., Zini, M., Stefanelli, C., & Merni, F. (2016). Comparison of block versus weekly undulating periodization models on endocrine and strength changes in male athletes. Kinesiology, 48(1.), 71-78.

IGF 1 (and 3)

• Ghobadi, H., Attarzadeh Hosseini, S. R., Rashidlamir, A., & Mohammad Rahimi, G. R. (2024). Anabolic myokine responses and muscular performance following 8 weeks of autoregulated compared to linear resistance exercise in recreationally active males. Hormones, 1-10.
• Mahmoud, N., Mohammadreza, H. A., Abdolhosein, T. K., Mehdi, N., & Arent, S. M. (2022). Serum myokine levels after linear and flexible non-linear periodized resistance training in overweight sedentary women. European journal of sport science, 22(4), 658-668.

Lipids and Insulin Resistance

• Streb, A. R., dos Santos Leonel, L., Delevatti, R. S., Cavaglieri, C. R., & Del Duca, G. F. (2021). Effects of Non-periodized and Linear Periodized Combined Exercise Training on Insulin Resistance Indicators in Adults with Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Sports Medicine-Open, 7(1), 1-11.
• Conlon, J., Haff, G., Tufano, J. J., & Newton, R. (2016). Periodization strategies in older adults: impact on physical function and health. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 48(12), 2426. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001053
• Bertazone, T. M. A., Medeiros, L. H. D. L., Oliveira, C. I. D., Bueno Junior, C. R., & Stabile, A. M. (2022). Periodized combined training in physically active overweight women over 50 years. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 28, e10220009721.
• Foschini, D., Araújo, R. C., Bacurau, R. F., De Piano, A., De Almeida, S. S., Carnier, J., ... & Dâmaso, A. R. (2010). Treatment of obese adolescents: the influence of periodization models and ACE genotype. Obesity, 18(4), 766-772.
• Inoue, D. S., De Mello, M. T., Foschini, D., Lira, F. S., Ganen, A. D. P., Campos, R. M. D. S., ... & Dâmaso, A. R. (2015). Linear and undulating periodized strength plus aerobic training promote similar benefits and lead to improvement of insulin resistance on obese adolescents. Journal of Diabetes and its Complications, 29(2), 258-264.

Creatine Kinase

• Oliveira, A. L., Sposito-Araujo, C. A., Senna, G. W., Lopes, T. C., Godoy, E. S., Scudese, E., ... & Dantas, E. H. (2018). Comparison of the Matveev periodization model and the Verkhoshansky periodization model. Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 21, 60-67.
• Vanni, A. C., Meyer, F., Da Veiga, A. D. R., & Zanardo, V. P. S. (2010). Comparison of the effects of two resistance training regimens on muscular and bone responses in premenopausal women. Osteoporosis International, 21, 1537-1544.

Lactate

• Franchini, E., Branco, B. M., Agostinho, M. F., Calmet, M., & Candau, R. (2015). Influence of linear and undulating strength periodization on physical fitness, physiological, and performance responses to simulated judo matches. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(2), 358-367.

Linear Block Periodization Compared to Non-Periodization

• Herrick, A. B., & Stone, W. J. (1996). The effects of periodization versus progressive resistance exercise on upper and lower body strength in women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 10(2), 72-76.
• Junior, E. R. T. S., DE SALLES, B. F., Dias, I., Simão, R., & Willardson, J. M. (2022). Effects of Six-week Periodized Versus Non-Periodized Kettlebell Swing Training on Strength, Power and Muscular Endurance. International Journal of Exercise Science, 15(4), 526.
• Loturco, I., Nakamura, F. Y., Kobal, R., Gil, S., Pivetti, B., Pereira, L. A., & Roschel, H. (2016). Traditional periodization versus optimum training load applied to soccer players: effects on neuromuscular abilities. International journal of sports medicine, 37(13), 1051-1059.
• Abt, J. P., Oliver, J. M., Nagai, T., Sell, T. C., Lovalekar, M. T., Beals, K., ... & Lephart, S. M. (2016). Block-periodized training improves physiological and tactically relevant performance in Naval Special Warfare Operators. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(1), 39-52.

True Linear Periodization Compared to Non-periodization

• Schiotz, M. K., Potteiger, J. A., Huntsinger, P. G., & Denmark, L. C. D. C. (1998). The short-term effects of periodized and constant-intensity training on body composition, strength, and performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 12(3), 173-178.
• Heilbronn, B. E., Doma, K., Gormann, D., Schumann, M., & Sinclair, W. H. (2020). Effects of periodized vs. nonperiodized resistance training on army-specific fitness and skills performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 34(3), 738-753.

Daily Undulation Compared to Non-periodization (and 1, 2, & 3)

• Borges Silva, F., Martínez Rodríguez, A., Jiménez Reyes, P., Sánchez Sánchez, J., & Romero Arenas, S. (2023). Which periodization is better (traditional vs undulating) to induce changes in body composition and strength of healthy young adults?. Cultura_Ciencia_Deporte [CCD], 17(54).
• Legey, S., Barsanulfo, S. R., Lamego, M., Pinheiro, B., Inacio, P. A., Machado, S., & Sá Filho, A. (2023). Comparison between nonperiodized resistance training and nonlinear periodization on muscular peak power in Brazilian soccer players. Manual Therapy, Posturology & Rehabilitation Journal, 21, 1-5.
• Moraes, E., Fleck, S. J., Dias, M. R., & Simão, R. (2013). Effects on strength, power, and flexibility in adolescents of nonperiodized vs. daily nonlinear periodized weight training. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(12), 3310-3321.
• Soares, W. F., Soares, V. L., Zanetti, H. R., Neves, F. F., Silva-Vergara, M. L., & Mendes, E. L. (2022). Effects of two different exercise training programs periodization on anthropometric and functional parameters in people living with HIV: a randomized clinical trial. International Journal of Exercise Science, 15(3), 733.

Periodization versus Pyramid Set and Performance Protocol

• Antretter, M., Färber, S., Immler, L., Perktold, M., Posch, D., Raschner, C., Wachholz, F., & Burtscher, M. (2017) The hatfield-system versus the weekly undulating periodised resistance training in trained males. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 0(0), 1-9. doi: 10.1177/1747954117746457
• Antretter, M., Färber, S., Immler, L., Perktold, M., Posch, D., Raschner, C., ... & Burtscher, M. (2019). The Hatfield-System versus the Weekly Undulating Periodised Resistance Training in trained males: Effects of a third mesocyle. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 14(3), 599-607
• Mann, J. B., Thyfault, J. P., Ivey, P. A., & Sayers, S. P. (2010). The effect of autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise vs. linear periodization on strength improvement in college athletes. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 24(7), 1718-1723.
• Ghobadi, H., Attarzadeh Hosseini, S. R., Rashidlamir, A., & Forbes, S. C. (2022). Auto-regulatory progressive training compared to linear programming on muscular strength, endurance, and body composition in recreationally active males. European Journal of Sport Science, 22(10), 1543-1554.

Comparing Block, True Linear, Weekly, Daily, and Non-periodized Programs (and 6)

• De Lima, C., Boullosa, D. A., Frollini, A. B., Donatto, F. F., Leite, R. D., Gonelli, P. R. G., ... & Cesar, M. C. (2012). Linear and daily undulating resistance training periodizations have differential beneficial effects in young sedentary women. International journal of sports medicine, 723-727.
• Prestes, J., Frollini, A. B., de Lima, C., Donatto, F. F., Foschini, D., de Cássia Marqueti, R., ... & Fleck, S. J. (2009). Comparison between linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training to increase strength. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2437-2442.
• Hassan Tammam, A., & Mohamed Hashem, E. (2015). Comparison between daily and weekly undulating periodized resistance training to increase muscular strength for volleyball players. Journal of Applied Sports Science, 5(3), 27-36.
• Bartolomei, S., Hoffman, J. R., Merni, F., & Stout, J. R. (2014). A comparison of traditional and block periodized strength training programs in trained athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(4), 990-997.
• Bartolomei, S., Stout, J. R., Fukuda, D. H., Hoffman, J. R., & Merni, F. (2015). Block vs. weekly undulating periodized resistance training programs in women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(10), 2679-2687.
• Hassan Tammam, A., & Mohamed Hashem, E. (2016). The effect of linear and biweekly non-linear periodized resistance training on maximal strength and vertical jump for volleyball players. Journal of Applied Sports Science, 6(1), 73-81.
• Jaimes, D. A., Contreras, D., Jimenez, A. M., Orcioli-Silva, D., Barbieri, F. A., & Gobbi, L. T. (2019). Effects of linear and undulating periodization of strength training in the acceleration of skater children. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 25.

Daily Undulation Compared to True Linear Periodization

• Apel, J. M., Lacey, R. M., & Kell, R. T. (2011). A comparison of traditional and weekly undulating periodized strength training programs with total volume and intensity equated. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25(3), 694-703.
• Kok, L. Y., Hamer, P. W., & Bishop, D. J. (2009). Enhancing muscular qualities in untrained women: linear versus undulating periodization. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 41(9), 1797-1807.
• Harries, S. K., Lubans, D. R., & Callister, R. (2016). Comparison of resistance training progression models on maximal strength in sub-elite adolescent rugby union players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(2), 163-169.

Daily Undulation Compared to Non-linear Block Periodization (2-3 Weeks per block)

• Painter, K. B., Haff, G. G., Ramsey, M. W., McBride, J., Triplett, T., Sands, W. A., ... & Stone, M. H. (2012). Strength gains: Block versus daily undulating periodization weight training among track and field athletes. International journal of sports physiology and performance, 7(2), 161-169.
• Painter, K. B., Haff, G. G., Triplett, N. T., Stuart, C., Hornsby, G., Ramsey, M. W., ... & Stone, M. H. (2018). Resting hormone alterations and injuries: Block vs. DUP weight-training among D-1 track and field athletes. Sports, 6(1), 3.
• Gonelli, P. R., Braz, T. V., Verlengia, R., Pellegrinotti, Í. L., César, M. C., Sindorf, M. A., ... & Lopes, C. R. (2018). Effect of linear and undulating training periodization models on the repeated sprint ability and strength of soccer players. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 24.
• Peterson, M. D., Dodd, D. J., Alvar, B. A., Rhea, M. R., & Favre, M. (2008). Undulation training for development of hierarchical fitness and improved firefighter job performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(5), 1683-1695.
• Rana, K. S., & Lehri, A. (2019). A Comparison of Linear and Daily Undulating Periodized Strength Training Programes for Quadriceps Strength in Normal Young Male Population. Journal of Exercise Science & Physiotherapy Vol, 15(1).
• Ullrich, B., Pelzer, T., & Pfeiffer, M. (2018). Neuromuscular effects to 6 weeks of loaded countermovement jumping with traditional and daily undulating periodization. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(3), 660-674.
• Doina, S. R. & Florina, G. E. (2019). BLOCK PERIODIZATION IN SPEED SKATING: EFFECT OF 4 WEEKS ON MAXIMUM FORCE AND POWER IN JUNIORS. Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Educatio Artis Gymnasticae, 77-90.
• Sabido, R., Hernández-Davó, J. L., Botella, J., Jiménez-Leiva, A., & Fernández-Fernández, J. (2018). Effects of block and daily undulating periodization on neuromuscular performance in young male handball players. Kinesiology, 50(1), 97-103.
• Abdi, N., Hamedinia, M. R., Izanloo, Z., & Hedayatpour, N. (2019). The effect of linear and daily undulating periodized resistance training on the neuromuscular function and the maximal quadriceps strength. Baltic Journal of Health and Physical Activity, 11(1), 5.

Daily Undulation Compared to Block Linear Periodization (4-week blocks) (and 8 & 12)

• Rhea, M. R., Ball, S. D., Phillips, W. T., & Burkett, L. N. (2002). A comparison of linear and daily undulating periodized programs with equated volume and intensity for strength. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 16(2), 250-255.
• Miranda, F., Simao, R., Rhea, M., Bunker, D., Prestes, J., Leite, R. D., ... & Novaes, J. (2011). Effects of linear vs. daily undulatory periodized resistance training on maximal and submaximal strength gains. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 25(7), 1824-1830.
• Rodrigues, B. M., Senna, G. W., Simão, R., Scudese, E., Silva-Grigoletto, M. E. D., Paoli, A., ... & Dantas, E. H. M. (2018). Traditional vs daily undulling periodization in strength and local muscle endurance gains on trained men.
• Spineti, J., Figueiredo, T., Salles, B. F. D., Assis, M., Fernandes, L., Novaes, J., & Simão, R. (2013). Comparison between different periodization models on muscular strength and thickness in a muscle group increasing sequence. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 19, 280-286

True Linear Periodization Compared to Block Linear Periodization (15)

Block Linear Periodization Compared to Block Linear Followed by Daily Undulation

• Ramalingam, S., & Yee, K. (2013). Comparison of linear and daily undulating periodization with equated volume and intensity for muscular endurance in adolescent athletes. Asian Journal of Exercise & Sports Science, 10(2), 36-48.
• Simão, R., Spineti, J., de Salles, B. F., Matta, T., Fernandes, L., Fleck, S. J., ... & Strom-Olsen, H. E. (2012). Comparison between nonlinear and linear periodized resistance training: hypertrophic and strength effects. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 26(5), 1389-1395.

Comparing Block Linear, Daily Undulation, and Non-Periodized Programs

• Souza, E. O., Ugrinowitsch, C., Tricoli, V., Roschel, H., Lowery, R. P., Aihara, A. Y., ... & Wilson, J. M. (2014). Early adaptations to six weeks of non-periodized and periodized strength training regimens in recreational males. Journal of sports science & medicine, 13(3), 604.
• De Souza, E. O., Tricoli, V., Rauch, J., Alvarez, M. R., Laurentino, G., Aihara, A. Y., ... & Ugrinowitsch, C. (2018). Different patterns in muscular strength and hypertrophy adaptations in untrained individuals undergoing nonperiodized and periodized strength regimens. The journal of strength & conditioning research, 32(5), 1238-1244.
• STONE, M. H., Potteiger, J. A., Pierce, K. C., Proulx, C. M., O'bryant, H. S., Johnson, R. L., & Stone, M. E. (2000). Comparison of the effects of three different weight-training programs on the one repetition maximum squat. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 14(3), 332-337.
• Hoffman, J. R., Ratamess, N. A., Klatt, M., Faigenbaum, A. D., Ross, R. E., Tranchina, N. M., ... & Kraemer, W. J. (2009). Comparison between different off-season resistance training programs in Division III American college football players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(1), 11-19.

Comparing True Linear, Daily Undulation, and Non-Periodized Programs

• Monteiro, A. G., Aoki, M. S., Evangelista, A. L., Alveno, D. A., Monteiro, G. A., da Cruz Piçarro, I., & Ugrinowitsch, C. (2009). Nonlinear periodization maximizes strength gains in split resistance training routines. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(4), 1321-1326.

Comparing Non-linear Block, Weekly Undulation, and Daily Programs

• Buford, T. W., Rossi, S. J., Smith, D. B., & Warren, A. J. (2007). A comparison of periodization models during nine weeks with equated volume and intensity for strength. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21(4), 1245-1250.
• de Araújo Farias, D., Gonçalves, M. M., Nassar, S. E., & de Oliveira, E. (2021). Effects of Different Periodization Models in Strength Training on Physical and Motor Skills during 24 Weeks of Training: English version of Rev Ed Física/J Phys Ed (2021) 90, 1, 6-23. Revista de Educação Física/Journal of Physical Education, 90(2), 118-133.

Daily Undulation Order (Pre-set and Self-selected) (and 4)

• da Silva, F. P., Vilaça-Alves, J., de Souza, L. L., dos Santos, J. S., Figueiredo, T., Paz, A. G., ... & Miranda, H. (2016). Effects of daily and flexible non-linear periodization on maximal and submaximal strength, vertical jump and speed performance of Brazilian army skydivers. Int J Sports Exerc Med, 2(4), 1-6.
• McNamara, J. M., & Stearne, D. J. (2010). Flexible nonlinear periodization in a beginner college weight training class. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 24(1), 17-22.
• Colquhoun, R. J., Gai, C. M., Walters, J., Brannon, A. R., Kilpatrick, M. W., D'Agostino, D. P., & Campbell, W. I. (2017). Comparison of powerlifting performance in trained men using traditional and flexible daily undulating periodization. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(2), 283-291.
• Peixoto, D. L., DE CASTRO, B. M., Macedo, A. G., Urtado, C. B., Lima, P. S., Leite, R. D., ... & Prestes, J. (2022). Muscle Daily Undulating Periodization for Strength and Body Composition: The Proposal of a New Model. International Journal of Exercise Science, 15(4), 206.

Compared to Reverse Linear Periodization (and 16)

• Prestes, J., De Lima, C., Frollini, A. B., Donatto, F. F., & Conte, M. (2009). Comparison of linear and reverse linear periodization effects on maximal strength and body composition. The Journal of strength & conditioning research, 23(1), 266-274.
• Clemente-Suárez, V. J., Ramos-Campo, D. J., Tornero-Aguilera, J. F., Parraca, J. A., & Batalha, N. (2021). The effect of periodization on training program adherence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(24), 12973.
• Rhea, M. R., Phillips, W. T., Burkett, L. N., Stone, W. J., Ball, S. D., Alvar, B. A., & Thomas, A. B. (2003). A comparison of linear and daily undulating periodized programs with equated volume and intensity for local muscular endurance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 17(1), 82-87.

Older Adults (and 10 & 11)

• Macedo, R. M. D., Macedo, A. C. B. D., Faria-Neto, J. R., Costantini, C. R., Costantini, C. O., Olandoski, M., ... & Guarita-Souza, L. C. (2018). Superior cardiovascular effect of the periodized model for prescribed exercises as compared to the conventional one in coronary diseases. International Journal of Cardiovascular Sciences, 31, 393-404.
• De Freitas, M. C., de Souza Pereira, C. G., Batista, V. C., Rossi, F. E., Ribeiro, A. S., Cyrino, E. S., ... & Gobbo, L. A. (2019). Effects of linear versus nonperiodized resistance training on isometric force and skeletal muscle mass adaptations in sarcopenic older adults. Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 15(1), 148.
• Moura, B. M., Bezerra, E. D. S., Orssatto, L. B., Moro, A. R. P., & Diefenthaeler, F. (2021). Inter-individual rapid force improvements after mixed session and traditional periodization in aging adults: A randomized trial. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, 3, 125-137.
• DeBeliso, M., Harris, C., Spitzer-Gibson, T., & Adams, K. J. (2005). A comparison of periodised and fixed repetition training protocol on strength in older adults. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 8(2), 190-199.
• de Souza Bezerra, E., da Rosa Orssatto, L. B., De Moura, B. M., Willardson, J. M., Simão, R., & Moro, A. R. P. (2018). Mixed session periodization as a new approach for strength, power, functional performance, and body composition enhancement in aging adults. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(10), 2795-2806.
• Conlon, J. A., Haff, G. G., Tufano, J. J., & Newton, R. U. (2015). Application of session rating of perceived exertion among different models of resistance training in older adults. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(12), 3439-3446.
• Conlon, J. A., Haff, G. G., Tufano, J. J., & Newton, R. U. (2018). Training load indices, perceived tolerance, and enjoyment among different models of resistance training in older adults. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(3), 867-875.
• Silva, S. D. C. S. D., Pires, F. D. O., Batista Junior, M. T., Serra, L. D. L. P., Reis, C. B. F., Abreu, L. P. D., ... & Leite, R. D. (2023). Linear and undulating resistance training programming induce similar outcomes on physical fitness in elderly women. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria & Desempenho Humano, 25, e77528.
• Vargas-Molina, S., García-Sillero, M., Romance, R., Petro, J. L., Jiménez-García, J. D., Bonilla, D. A., ... & Benítez-Porres, J. (2022). Traditional and undulating periodization on body composition, strength levels and physical fitness in older adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4522.

Additional Methods of Modifying Training Intensity

• Helms, E. R., Byrnes, R. K., Cooke, D. M., Haischer, M. H., Carzoli, J. P., Johnson, T. K., ... & Zourdos, M. C. (2018). RPE vs. percentage 1RM loading in periodized programs matched for sets and repetitions. Frontiers in physiology, 9, 247.
• Graham, T., & Cleather, D. J. (2021). Autoregulation by “repetitions in reserve” leads to greater improvements in strength over a 12-week training program than fixed loading. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35(9), 2451-2456.
• Huang, Z., Ji, H., Chen, L., Zhang, M., He, J., Zhang, W., ... & Li, D. (2023). Comparing autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise and velocity-based resistance training on jump performance in college badminton athletes. PeerJ, 11, e15877.
• Huang, Z., Chen, J., Chen, L., Zhang, M., Zhang, W., Sun, J., & Li, D. (2024). The enhancement of explosive power contributes to the development of anaerobic capacity: A comparison of autoregulatory progressive resistance exercise and velocity-based resistance training. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness.
• Vargas-Molina, S., Petro, J. L., Romance, R., Bonilla, D. A., Schoenfeld, B. J., Kreider, R. B., & Benítez-Porres, J. (2022). Menstrual cycle-based undulating periodized program effects on body composition and strength in trained women: A pilot study. Science & Sports, 37(8), 753-761.
• Wikstrom-Frisen, L., Boraxbekk, C.-J. and Henriksson-Larsen, K. (2017) Effects on power, strength and lean body mass of menstrual-oral contraceptive cycle based resistance training. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 57(1-2), 43-52, doi: 10.23736/S0022-4707.16.05848-5

Studies with Methodological Issues (and 14)

• Ullrich, B., Pelzer, T., Oliveira, S., & Pfeiffer, M. (2016). Neuromuscular responses to short-term resistance training with traditional and daily undulating periodization in adolescent elite judoka. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(8), 2083-2099.
• Pelzer, T., Ullrich, B., & Pfeiffer, M. (2017). Periodization effects during short-term resistance training with equated exercise variables in females. European journal of applied physiology, 117, 441-454.

Periodization Compared to Non-periodization (3, 20-22, & 26)

• Oliver, J. M., Abt, J. P., Sell, T. C., Beals, K., Wood, D. E., & Lephart, S M. (2015). Salivary hormone response to 12-week block-periodized training in naval special warfare operators. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29(1), 66-73
• Borges Silva, F., Martínez Rodríguez, A., Jiménez Reyes, P., Sánchez Sánchez, J., & Romero Arenas, S. (2023). Which periodization is better (traditional vs undulating) to induce changes in body composition and strength of healthy young adults?. Cultura_Ciencia_Deporte [CCD], 17(54).

Pyramid Sets Compared to Weekly Undulation and True Linear Periodization (7, 27, 28, & 30)

True Linear versus Block Periodization (15)

Block Linear Periodization versus Block Linear to Daily Undulation (55)

Daily Undulation Compared to True Linear Periodization (39 & 40)

Daily Undulation Compared to Block Linear Periodization (and 46, 50, 54, & 57)

• Spineti, J., Figueiredo, T., Salles, B. F. D., Assis, M., Fernandes, L., Novaes, J., & Simão, R. (2013). Comparison between different periodization models on muscular strength and thickness in a muscle group increasing sequence. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 19, 280-286.

Weekly Periodization (6, 27, 31, 34, 35)

Non-linear Block Periodization (6, 41, 44)

Reverse Linear Periodization (16, 67, 69)

Self-selected Compared to Pre-determined Daily Undulation Order (and 65)

• Rodrigues, J. A., Santos, B. C., Medeiros, L. H., Gonçalves, T. C., & Júnior, C. R. (2021). Effects of different periodization strategies of combined aerobic and strength training on heart rate variability in older women. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35(7), 2033-2039.

RPE and RIR Compared to Percentage of 1-RM (79 & 80)

Fixed Compared to Variable Rep Ranges During a Daily Undulation Program (66)

Block Linear, Daily Undulation, and Non-Periodized Programs (56, 58. 59)

Additional Comparisons (60, 61, 69)

Obese Individuals (8, 11-13)

Menstrual-Cycle Based Programs (83)

Older Population (10, 70 - 72, 74, & 78)