Introduction

Techniques and Ending Info

Attachment and Innervation for Infraspinatus

Attachment and Innervation for Teres Minor

Relative Location

Palpation

Actions

Arthrokinematics

Fascial Integration

Behavior in Postural Dysfunction

Infraspinatus and Teres Minor

TPTA

ACSM

NASM

REPS

REPSI

PTAGlobal

PACE

WITS

AOTA

AUSPHYSIO

CIMSPA

CanFitPro

ISSA

AFAA

ProCert

NCBTMB

YOGA

NYPT

External Rotator Cuff Muscles (Infraspinatus and Teres Minor)

This course describes the anatomy and <a id="integration" data-tip="1473" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integrated</a> function of the infraspinatus and teres minor <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> (a.k.a. the rotator cuff <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a>, the shoulder external rotators, rotator cuff, glenohumeral joint rotators, or SITS muscles). The infraspinatus <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> originates on the infraspinous fossa of the scapula (<a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> side of the shoulder blade), and the teres minor <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> originates on the upper 2/3rd of the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the scapula. Both the infraspinatus and teres minor insert into the greater tubercle of the humerus. The infraspinatus is composed of a higher proportion of type II <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> fibers, and the teres minor is composed of a relatively even distribution of type II and type I <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> fibers. The infraspinatus and teres minor muscles cross the shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) and contribute to shoulder external (<a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a>) rotation, shoulder extension, and shoulder stabilization during all motions of the upper limb. This course also describes the role of the infraspinatus and teres minor in glenohumeral <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a>, fascial <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>, <a id="posture" data-tip="1659" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">postural</a> dysfunction, and subsystem <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>. Sports medicine professionals (personal trainers, fitness instructors, physical therapists, massage therapists, chiropractors, occupational therapists, athletic trainers, etc.) must be aware of the <a id="integration" data-tip="1473" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integrated</a> function of the infraspinatus and teres minor for the detailed analysis of human movement, and the development of sophisticated exercise programs and therapeutic (rehabilitation) interventions. Further, this course is essential knowledge for future courses discussing injury prevention and physical rehabilitation (e.g. rotator cuff injury, rotator cuff tear, infraspinatus pain, deltoid (shoulder) <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> pain, shoulder <a id="stability" data-tip="1193" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">instability</a>, shoulder impingement syndrome, rotator cuff repair and scar tissue development). As well as the synergistic function of the infraspinatus and teres minor (e.g. stabilization of the glenohumeral joint and upper arm, and contribution to external rotation with the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> deltoid), and infraspinatus and teres minor exercises and techniques for enhancing sports performance, especially for the shoulder athlete (throwing athlete) (e.g. ensuring ideal infraspinatus and teres minor length for <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> shoulder <a id="stability" data-tip="1191" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/stability" class="glossary">stability</a>, strength, <a id="power" data-tip="1399" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/power" class="glossary">power</a>, and preventions of weakness and pain during throwing).
<h4>Brookbush Institute&#x2019;s most recommended techniques for the Infraspinatus and Teres Minor Muscles (see videos below):</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Activation: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/shoulder-external-rotator-isolated-activation">External Rotator Activation</a></li>
 <li>Activation: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/external-rotator-reactive-activation">External Rotator Reactive Activation</a>&#xA0;</li>
 <li>Manual: <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/infraspinatus-teres-minor-static-manual-release-soft-tissue-mobilization">Infraspinatus and Teres Minor Static Manual Release</a></li>
</ul>
<img alt="Infraspinatus muscle on the shoulder blade" title="The posterior rotator cuff muscle infraspinatus" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644452830-infraspinatus_muscle_back2.png">

 Course Description: Infraspinatus and Teres Minor

<h3>What&#x2019;s in a name</h3>
<h4>Rotator Cuff:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=rotate&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rotate (v.)</a> 1794, intransitive, back-formation from <a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=rotation&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rotation</a>. Transitive sense from 1823. Related: Rotated; rotating. Rotator &#x201C;muscle which allows a part to be moved circularly&#x201D; is recorded from the 1670s. (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&amp;search=rotator&amp;searchmode=none" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)</li>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cuff&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cuff (n.)</a> &#x201C;bottom of a sleeve,&#x201D; mid-14c., cuffe &#x201C;hand covering, mitten, glove,&#x201D; perhaps somehow from Medieval Latin cuffia &#x201C;head covering,&#x201D; of uncertain origin. Sense of &#x201C;band around the sleeve&#x201D; is first attested in the 1520s; a sense of &#x201C;hem of trousers&#x201D; is 1911. (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cuff&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)
 <ul>
 <li>&quot;A covering that rotates&quot;</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644452830-infraspinatus_muscle_back2.png"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644452830-infraspinatus_muscle_back2.png" title="The posterior rotator cuff muscle infraspinatus" alt="The infraspinatus with attachments on the scapula and humerus"></a>
By Anatomography - en:Anatomography (setting page of this image), CC BY-SA 2.1 jp, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=22787453
<h4>Infraspinatus:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=infra&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">infra (adv.)</a> &quot;under, below, further on,&quot; from Latin infra (see <a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=infra-&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">infra-</a>). (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=infra&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)</li>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spine&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spine (n.)</a> c. 1400, &quot;backbone,&quot; later &quot;thornlike part&quot; (early 15c.), from Old French espine &quot;thorn, prickle; backbone, spine&quot; (12c., Modern French &#xE9;pine), from Latin spina &quot;backbone,&quot; originally &quot;thorn, prickle&quot; (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spine&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)</li>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=natal&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">natal (adj.)</a> late 14c., &quot;of or pertaining to birthdays,&quot; from Latin natalis &quot;pertaining to birth or origin,&quot; (Old Latin gnasci; see <a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=genus&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">genus</a>) (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&amp;search=natus&amp;searchmode=none" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)
 <ul>
 <li>&quot;originating <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> to the spine of the scapula&quot;</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h4>Teres Minor:</h4>
<ul>
 <li><a href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/teres" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres</a> &#x2013; a Latin word meaning &quot;rounded&quot; or &quot;cylindrical&quot; - (<a href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/teres" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Medical Dictionary</a>)</li>
 <li><a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=minor&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">minor (adj.)</a> - early 13c., menour &quot;Franciscan&quot; (see <a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=minor&amp;allowed_in_frame=0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">minor</a> (n.)), from Latin minor &quot;less, lesser, smaller, junior,&quot; figuratively &quot;inferior, less important,&quot;- (<a href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&amp;search=Minor&amp;searchmode=none" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a>)
 <ul>
 <li>&quot;The smaller of two cylindrical muscles&quot;</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644452980-back-of-humerus.png"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644452980-back-of-humerus.png" title="The attachments of the rotator cuff muscles on the humerus" alt="Boney landmarks on the humerus with attachments highligthed for the rotator cuff muscles"></a>
By Henry Vandyke Carter - Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See &quot;Book&quot; section below) Bartleby.com: Gray&apos;s Anatomy, Plate 208, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=327860

Introduction to the External Rotator Cuff Muscles

<ul>
 <li>Origin: <a id="medial" data-tip="1568" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/medial" class="glossary">Medial</a> 2/3 of the infraspinous fossa of the scapula, and to the adjacent fascia (8, 11).</li>
 <li>Insertion: Middle facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus and shoulder joint capsule superiorly and posteriorly (8, 11).</li>
 <li>Nerve: Suprascapular <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a>, arising from the upper trunk of the brachial plexus via the <a id="ventral" data-tip="1553" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/ventral" class="glossary">ventral</a> rami of <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> roots C5 and C6, and occasionally C4 (8, 11).
 <ul>
 <li>The suprascapular <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> passes through the scapular notch, underneath the transverse ligament, innervating the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/supraspinatus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">supraspinatus</a> before swinging around the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the spine of the scapula and innervating the infraspinatus. Both the scapular notch and <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the spine of the scapula may be sites of entrapment.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>

Attachment & Innervations: Infraspinatus

<ul>
 <li>Origin: Upper 2/3, <a id="dorsal" data-tip="1554" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/dorsal" class="glossary">dorsal</a> surfaces of the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the scapula, and to the aponeurosis separating this <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> from the teres major and infraspinatus (8, 11).</li>
 <li>Insertion: Lowest facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus and shoulder joint <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> capsule (8, 11).</li>
 <li>Nerve: Axillary <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a>, arising from the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> cord (from the upper trunk, <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> division) of the brachial plexus via the <a id="ventral" data-tip="1553" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/ventral" class="glossary">ventral</a> rami of <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> roots C5 and C6 (11).
 <ul>
 <li>The axillary <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> emerges from the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> cord of the brachial plexus, descending just <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> to the subscapularis before winding back up through the quadrangular space and innervating the long head of the triceps brachii and deltoid.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453207-brachial-plexus.png"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453207-brachial-plexus.png" title="The brachial plexus with the nerves of the shoulder muscles labeled " alt="The nerve roots in the brachial plexus that run to the rotator cuff"></a>
By Henry Vandyke Carter - Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See &quot;Book&quot; section below) Bartleby.com: Gray&apos;s Anatomy, Plate 807, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=541662

Attachment & Innervation: Teres Minor

<ul>
 <li>Infraspinatus:&#xA0;Despite being thought of as a &quot;deep muscle&quot; of the rotator cuff, the infraspinatus is quite superficial. The <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> <a id="medial" data-tip="1568" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/medial" class="glossary">medial</a> portion of the infraspinatus <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> is covered by the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/trapezius-muscle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">lower trapezius</a>, and its tendon is covered by the deltoids; however, most of the <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> is little more than fascia and skin deep (see the labeled image of the bodybuilder below). The fascia covering the infraspinatus is known simply as the &quot;infraspinatus fascia&quot; and is quite substantial, providing some of the origins of the infraspinatus. Although the fascia is tacked firmly to the borders of the scapula, encompassing the teres minor and infraspinatus (running under the deltoid and separating the teres minor from the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a>), layers of the fascia do run continuous with the deltoid fascia laterally and blend with the fascia of the rhomboids medially. Deep to the infraspinatus is its blood supply (suprascapular and circumflex scapular arteries) and <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> (suprascapular <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a>) although the infraspinatus is not implicated in <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> entrapment and the infraspinatus fossa of the scapula. The <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> border of the infraspinatus is abutted by the spine of the scapula. Inferiorly this <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> abuts the origin of teres major near the <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> angle of the scapula, and the teres minor abuts its <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border. The tendon of the infraspinatus travels horizontally, just <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> to the tendon of the teres minor to insert into the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> capsule and middle facet of the greater tubercle (between the insertions of the teres minor and&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/supraspinatus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">supraspinatus</a>).</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453256-repair-methods-for-full-thickness-rotator-cuff-tears-implications-for-pt-29-728.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453256-repair-methods-for-full-thickness-rotator-cuff-tears-implications-for-pt-29-728.jpeg" title="The attachment of the rotator cuff muscles on the humerus" alt="The insertion of the rotator cuff muscles on the greater and lesser tubricles of the humerus"></a>
Insertion of Rotator Cuff Muscles - Note the yellow represents articular cartilage and the black is the insertion of the teres minor -&#xA0;
<ul>
 <li>Teres Minor:&#xA0;The teres minor is also a fairly superficial <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a>, although it is obscured by the complicated network of muscles, fascia, nerves, and arteries of the axilla. The teres minor is encapsulated by the infraspinatus fascia, separating it from the teres major. The <a id="medial" data-tip="1568" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/medial" class="glossary">medial</a> border of the teres minor blends with the infraspinatus giving a hint to their common function and level of activity during elevation of the arm (flexion, abduction, scaption) (8, 10, 11). The <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> and <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the teres minor is abutted by the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a>; however, as these muscles blend into their tendinous insertion the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres&#xA0;major</a>&#xA0;passes <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> to the long head of the triceps tendon en route to the crest of the lesser tubercle of the humerus (11), while the teres&#xA0;minor&#xA0;passes <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> to the triceps tendon en route to the lowest facet of the greater tubercle. This division results in the teres minor being an external rotator of the shoulder and the&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a>&#xA0;being an internal rotator of the shoulder. The teres minor makes up the <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> border of the quadrangular space through which the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> circumflex humeral artery and axillary <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> pass. The teres minor has been implicated in the entrapment of these structures, specifically relative to <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1632" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">trigger point</a> development (8).</li>
</ul>

Where are the Infraspinatus and Teres Minor Located

Infraspinatus:&#xA0;Have your partner lie <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> (face down) on a table with the humerus supported by the table, but the forearm dangling free. Find the <a id="medial" data-tip="1568" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/medial" class="glossary">medial</a> border of the scapula, the spine of the scapula, and the axillary border of the scapula - lay a finger on each making a triangle. Within this triangle strum the horizontal fibers of the infraspinatus from <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> (spine of the scapula to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> angle). To aid in your palpation have your partner externally rotate their humerus (raise their hand toward their head) about an inch or two and relax. You should note the infraspinatus contract under your fingers. Having your partner pulse this little movement should aid in your palpation as you explore the borders and breadth of this <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> (14).
Teres Minor:<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">Have your partner lie <a id="prone" data-tip="1561" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/prone" class="glossary">prone</a> (face down) on a table with the humerus supported by the table, but the forearm dangling free. If you pincer grip &quot;the meat&quot; at the <a id="lateral" data-tip="1567" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/lateral" class="glossary">lateral</a> border of the scapula you will have the teres minor,<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" style="letter-spacing: 0px;" rel="noopener">teres major</a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">,<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">and<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" style="letter-spacing: 0px;" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">between your fingers. Take the time to note that there is more than one <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a> within this handful of tissue, by strumming from <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a>. You should note little cylinders, or tubes, each one representing a different <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a>. The middle tube should be the teres minor, but we can check our palpation by applying some functional anatomy knowledge. The<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" style="letter-spacing: 0px;" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">and<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" style="letter-spacing: 0px;" rel="noopener">teres major</a><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">&#xA0;<span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant-ligatures: inherit; font-variant-caps: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: 0px;">are internal rotators, and only the teres minor is an external rotator. By having your partner externally rotate their humerus (raise their hand toward their head) about an inch or two and then relax you should feel the teres minor become much more firm/dense than the remaining tissue in your pincer grip. Have your partner alternate between external rotation and relaxation until you feel confident in your palpation (14).
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453328-infraspinatus_muscle_1.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453328-infraspinatus_muscle_1.jpeg" title="Cadaver dissection of the shoulder, highlighting the rotator cuff muscles" alt="Dissection of the shoulder muscles showing the triceps brachii, teres major, teres minor, latissimus dorsi, and infraspinatus"></a>
By Anatomist90 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17900187

Palpating the External Rotator Cuff Muscles

<ul>
 <li>Shoulder: Both the infraspinatus and teres minor externally rotate the shoulder (with the arm in any position) and stabilize the humeral head in the glenoid fossa (8, 10, 11).
 <ul>
 <li>Note: Despite the teres minor and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a> sharing part of their names and a similar origin on the axillary border of the scapula, the teres minor has not been found to contribute to shoulder adduction. Further note, that the teres minor does external rotation, whereas the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a> does internal rotation.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453451-infraspinatus-cadaver.jpg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453451-infraspinatus-cadaver.jpg" title="Cadaver dissection of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor" alt="Infraspinatus in a cadaver dissection of the shoulder"></a>
Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and teres major - cadaver dissection - http://www.rvuanatomy.com/uploads/1/3/4/5/13457421/s2_animated.gif

<h3>Integrated Function:</h3>
<ul>
 <li>Stabilization: Stabilization of glenohumeral joint</li>
 <li>Eccentrically Decelerates: Shoulder internal rotation</li>
 <li>Synergists:
 <ul>
 <li>The infraspinatus and teres minor may work synergistically with the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> head of the deltoid to externally rotate the shoulder.</li>
 <li>The infraspinatus and teres minor, as part of the rotator cuff work synergistically with the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/supraspinatus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">supraspinatus</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/subscapularis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">subscapularis</a> to dynamically stabilize the glenohumeral joint.</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h3><a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453498-figure-1-1b-rotator-cuff_side-view.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453498-figure-1-1b-rotator-cuff_side-view.jpeg" title="Image of the rotator cuff muscles attaching into the glenohumeral joint" alt="The infraspinatus and teres minor attachment in the shoulder joint"></a></h3>

Infraspinatus and Teres Minor Actions

<a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">Optimal</a> <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a> of the shoulder can be summarized as &quot;slide opposite roll&quot; with the intent of maintaining the humeral head center in the glenoid fossa. That is ideally, abduction of the shoulder would involve <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> of the humeral head and <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a>. Flexion would result in <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> <a id="spin" data-tip="1603" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/spin" class="glossary">spin</a> and <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> translation that should be accompanied by <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a>. Internal rotation of the shoulder is accompanied by <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> and <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a>. It is worth noting, that there is more to these opposing translatory forces than simply overcoming the <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> that accompanies <a id="osteokinematic-motion" data-tip="1518" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/osteokinematic-motion" class="glossary">osteokinematic motion</a> (flexion, abduction, internal rotation, etc.). All muscles create not only <a id="osteokinematic-motion" data-tip="1796" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/osteokinematic-motion" class="glossary">osteokinematic motions</a> but may create force vectors that exaggerate the translation of the humeral head. For example, the deltoid not only creates a force on the humerus that results in abduction, but the fiber direction also pulls superiorly, contributing to <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> and <a id="roll" data-tip="1602" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/roll" class="glossary">roll</a> of the humeral head. The forces that help to maintain the humeral head center in the glenoid fossa are likely the result of resistance to stretch from passive structures and active resistance via co-contraction of the functional antagonists. The passive structures involved in providing an opposing translatory force include the joint capsule and ligaments, as well as, the <a id="tone" data-tip="1642" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tone" class="glossary">tonicity</a> of muscles not actively involved in the joint motion (for example the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/latissimus-dorsi" target="_blank" rel="noopener">latissimus dorsi</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a> may assist in creating an <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> force, opposing the <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> role noted during abduction due to their inherent <a id="tone" data-tip="1639" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tone" class="glossary">tone</a> and passive resistance to stretch) (3). The active resistance to translatory force is generally created by co-contraction of antagonists <a id="proximal" data-tip="1564" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/proximal" class="glossary">proximal</a> to the joint itself. This active resistance to translation is likely the primary role of the rotator cuff muscles, along with <a id="compression" data-tip="1595" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/compression" class="glossary">compression</a> to aid in glenohumeral stabilization. The rotator cuff may be viewed as tiny boosters attempting to maintain the humeral head in orbit (centered in the glenoid fossa) during functional activities throughout the large range of motion of the humeral head.
Based on fiber direction and EMG studies the infraspinatus and teres minor contribute to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> (3). The importance of this force relative to opposing translation is seen in a classic study by Inman et. al. (16), in which a linear increase of activity was noted in the infraspinatus and teres minor throughout the first 120&#xB0; of abduction, with a slight decrease from 120 - 180&#xB0;. Less clear, is the impact of the infraspinatus and teres minor on <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> and <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> translation. Neumann (3), notes that tightness in the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> capsule of the shoulder may result in <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> translation of the humeral head. The infraspinatus and teres minor may contribute to tautness in the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> capsule; however, their placement <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> to the humerus and attachment to the greater tubercle may imply they impart a <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> translatory force.
<img alt="Posterior view of the infraspinatus on the scapula" title="The infraspinatus muscle on the posterior side of the scapula" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644453944-istock-1217694343-infraspinatus.jpg" width="500" height="500">
The effect pain and dysfunction have on <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a>, and the activity of the infraspinatus and teres minor may add clarity. In a study by Lawrence et. al. (18), pain and dysfunction did not result in <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> (which is commonly thought of as a component of shoulder impingement syndrome), but an increase in <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> during flexion and <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> during abduction. In a study by Scovazzo et al. (17), swimmers with painful shoulders actually showed an increase in infraspinatus activity during &quot;pull-through&quot;, which given the results from the previously mentioned studies, fiber direction and potential to impart translatory forces - this may imply that over-activity of the infraspinatus and teres minor contributes to the excess <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> translation and <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> noted in the Lawrence et. al. study (18).

My Fascial Hypothesis: Large fascial sheaths not only play a role in the transmission of mechanical force but may also play a role in dictating the function of muscular synergies. This is likely caused by reducing or increasing <a id="tone" data-tip="1639" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tone" class="glossary">tone</a> of invested musculature via reflex arcs formed between mechanoreceptors embedded in the <a id="connective-tissue-cell" data-tip="1368" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/connective-tissue-cell" class="glossary">connective tissue</a> and the attached musculature. In this way, my view of fascia differs slightly from noted expert on the subject Tom Myers. I think of these large fascial sheaths (specifically the thoracolumbar fascia, iliotibial band, and abdominal fascial sheath) as nature&apos;s &#x201C;motherboard.&#x201D; A place for mechanical information to be communicated to the <a id="nervous-system" data-tip="1690" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nervous-system" class="glossary">nervous system</a> for more efficient recruitment of the <a id="muscular-system" data-tip="1691" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscular-system" class="glossary">muscular system</a>. Despite having a slightly different philosophy it does not change the fact that fascia plays an important communicative role in the human body and we have Tom Myers to thank for his work.
<img title="Image of the fascial system of the body connecting muscles" src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1649100927-fascia-web-in-body.jpg" alt="The fascial web connecting two muscle fascicles">
<ul>
 <li>The Infraspinatus fascia: The fascia covering the infraspinatus is known simply as the &quot;infraspinatus fascia&quot; and is quite substantial, providing some of the origins of the infraspinatus. Although the fascia is tacked firmly to the borders of the scapula, encompassing the teres minor and infraspinatus (running under the deltoid and separating the teres minor from the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/teres-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">teres major</a>), layers of the fascia do run continuous with the deltoid fascia laterally and blend with the fascia of the rhomboids medially (25, 26). This may imply a synergistic relationship between the rhomboids, external rotators, and deltoids. Although these muscles do not contract concentrically in synergy during elevation of the arm, the rhomboids and external rotators of the shoulder must play a stabilizing role with the deltoids concentrically. This synergy is covered by Tom Myers in reference to the Deep Back Arm Line (DBAL) and Superficial Back Arm Line (SBAL) (6). Further consideration, may also be given to the complex fascial network of the cervicothoracic junction. The continuous fascia from infraspinatus to the rhomboids to the thoracic spine, in conjunction with the more superficial fascia from deltoid, to trapezius to thoracic spine may give inference to the interdependence of glenohumeral joint motion, scapular motion, and thoracic <a id="mobility" data-tip="1455" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/mobility" class="glossary">mobility</a>. I have often wondered if this facial network may be as imperative to <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> motion of the upper extremity as the thoracolumbar fascia is to <a id="optimal" data-tip="1571" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/optimal" class="glossary">optimal</a> motion of the core and <a id="proximal" data-tip="1564" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/proximal" class="glossary">proximal</a> lower extremity.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brookbush.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Infraspinatus-Fascia.jpg"><img src="https://brookbush.s3.us-east-2.amazonaws.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Infraspinatus-Fascia.jpg" alt="Posterior shoulder muscles shown from the anterior view" title="Note the infraspinatus fascia have been cut into and a flap pulled from the underlying muscle."></a>
Note the infraspinatus fascia has been cut into and a flap pulled from the underlying <a id="muscle-cell" data-tip="1781" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/muscle-cell" class="glossary">muscle</a>.
<ul>
 <li>The Shoulder Capsule: Both the infraspinatus and teres minor not only have adjacent insertions on the periosteum of the greater tubercle but blend with the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> shoulder capsule. This may imply fascial synergy with all muscles whose insertion blends and invest in the shoulder capsule, including the <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/subscapularis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">subscapularis</a> and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/supraspinatus" target="_blank" rel="noopener">supraspinatus</a>, as well as, the long head of the biceps brachii, long head of the triceps brachii, and <a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/pectoralis-major" target="_blank" rel="noopener">pectoralis major</a> (21). Again this may imply facial synergy with this group of muscles that enhance the rigidity of various portions of the shoulder capsule depending on the motion of the humerus. More research is needed.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454088-arm-lines.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454088-arm-lines.jpeg" title="The deep back arm line of the body, including the infraspinatus" alt="The deep back arm line running from the base of the skull, down the arm, into the trapezius muscle group"></a>
Tom Myers, Anatomy Trains: Second Edition. &#xA9; Elsevier Limited 2009

The&#xA0;infraspinatus and teres minor&#xA0;are likely&#xA0;long and under-active&#xA0;based on their contribution to <a id="osteokinematic-motion" data-tip="1518" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/osteokinematic-motion" class="glossary">osteokinematic motion</a> and commonly seen compensations related to&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a>&#xA0;(glenohumeral internal rotation); however, research related to alterations in <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1701" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic motion</a> related to shoulder pathology imply that these muscles may also have a propensity to become&#xA0;short and over-active.
<h4><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD):</a></h4>
Generally, those exhibiting&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/upper-body-dysfunction-ubd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Upper Body Dysfunction (UBD)</a>&#xA0;present with limitations in shoulder flexion and abduction and a resting <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> that includes excessive humeral internal rotation (1, 2). This would imply that the infraspinatus and teres minor were lengthened and under-active, and that activation and strengthening techniques may improve <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> and motion. Strengthening techniques for the shoulder external rotators are common, as comparative studies of various external rotator strengthening techniques can be seen in studies by&#xA0;Lawrence et al., (18),&#xA0;Ha et al. (19),&#xA0;Reinold et al. (20). Further, some evidence suggests <a id="synergistic-dominance" data-tip="1643" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/synergistic-dominance" class="glossary">synergistic dominance</a> and <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1632" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">trigger point</a> development in the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> deltoid&#xA0;(23), which may further imply infraspinatus and teres minor inhibition adding congruence to the &quot;long and under-active hypothesis&quot;. The&#xA0;Ha et al. study (19), even aimed to determine the external rotator <a id="activation-technique" data-tip="1528" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/activation-technique" class="glossary">activation technique</a> that resulted in the least amount of <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> deltoid activity.
The effect pain and dysfunction have on <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a> and the activity of the infraspinatus and teres minor may imply opposite changes in length and activity (short and over-active). In a study by&#xA0;Lawrence et. al. (18), pain and dysfunction did not result in <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> (which is commonly thought of as a component of shoulder impingement syndrome), but an increase in <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> during flexion and <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> during abduction. Further, Neumann notes that tightness in the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> capsule of the shoulder may result in <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> translation of the humeral head (3). Based on fiber direction and EMG studies the infraspinatus and teres minor contribute to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> (3, 16), and via their insertion into the joint capsule may contribute to tightness in the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> shoulder capsule. This would imply adaptive shortening and an increase in activity as a result of compensation. Further, in a study by&#xA0;Scovazzo et al. (17), swimmers with painful shoulders showed an increase in infraspinatus activity during &quot;pull-through&quot; when compared to those swimmers without shoulder pain. The only potential opposition to the infraspinatus and teres minor contributing to <a id="inferior" data-tip="1569" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/inferior" class="glossary">inferior</a> <a id="glide" data-tip="1598" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/glide" class="glossary">glide</a> and <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> translation (and adaptive shortening and over-activity) is their placement <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> to the humerus and insertion into the greater tubercle itself, and a &quot;wedge effect&quot; on the glenoid fossa, alluded to only by Basmaijian and Luca (24) that would result in <a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> and <a id="superior" data-tip="1570" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/superior" class="glossary">superior</a> translatory forces. Unfortunately, no research could be found on the direct effect of the infraspinatus and teres minor activity on <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1859" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematics</a>.
In&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lumbo-pelvic-hip-complex-dysfunction-lphcd" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lumbo Pelvic Hip Complex Dysfunction (LPHCD)</a>&#xA0;and&#xA0;Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction (SIJD)&#xA0;the infraspinatus and teres minor play no significant role.
In&#xA0;<a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/lower-leg-dysfunction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lower Leg Dysfunction (LLD)</a>&#xA0;the infraspinatus and teres minor play no significant role.
In Short, it is my <a id="hypothesis" data-tip="1446" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/hypothesis" class="glossary">hypothesis</a> that most individuals will exhibit signs that imply the infraspinatus and teres minor are&#xA0;long and under-active, but as compensation and changes in upper extremity motion progress to pain and pathology the infraspinatus and teres minor become&#xA0;short and overactive&#xA0;as a result of pattern overload, overuse and potentially an attempt to stabilize for <a id="arthrokinematics" data-tip="1863" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/arthrokinematics" class="glossary">arthrokinematic</a> <a id="dyskinesis" data-tip="1693" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/dyskinesis" class="glossary">dyskinesis</a>. This implies that most individuals will benefit from activation, <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a>, and strengthening techniques for the infraspinatus, but some individuals with a painful shoulder will benefit from a &quot;staging&quot; of intervention that starts with <a id="release" data-tip="1249" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/release" class="glossary">release</a> and lengthening techniques. Once more normal <a id="tone" data-tip="1639" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tone" class="glossary">tone</a> is achieved, <a id="exercise-progression" data-tip="1184" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/exercise-progression" class="glossary">progression</a> to activation and <a id="integration" data-tip="1472" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/integration" class="glossary">integration</a> techniques will aid in optimizing <a id="posture" data-tip="1658" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posture" class="glossary">posture</a> and motion and reduce the chance of recurrence. Licensed professionals (PT, ATC, DC, OT, DO) may also find that manual shoulder mobilization techniques are helpful in normalizing <a id="tone" data-tip="1639" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/tone" class="glossary">tone</a> and function of these muscles (videos below).
<h4>Clinical Implications:</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Shoulder impingement syndrome (<a id="anterior" data-tip="1566" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/anterior" class="glossary">anterior</a> and <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a>)</li>
 <li>Teres minor and infraspinatus trigger points</li>
 <li>Shoulder Pain</li>
 <li>Neck pain resulting from scapular dyskinesis</li>
 <li><a id="axial-skeleton" data-tip="1292" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/axial-skeleton" class="glossary">Axial</a> <a id="nerve-cell" data-tip="1361" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/nerve-cell" class="glossary">nerve</a> entrapment</li>
 <li>Bursitis</li>
 <li>Thoracic Outlet Syndrome</li>
 <li>Osteoarthritis of the glenohumeral joint</li>
</ul>
<h3>Signs of Altered Length/Tension and Tone:</h3>
<ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/courses/solutions-table-overhead-squat-assessment" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Overhead Squat:</a>
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/overhead-squat-assessment-10-arms-fall" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Arm Fall</a>&#xA0;- Long/Under-active</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Special Tests:
 <ul>
 <li><a href="http://videotree.brookbushinstitute.com/apleys-scratch-test/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Apley&apos;s Scratch Test</a>&#xA0;- Bottom Arm Restricted (Adduction and Internal Rotation)</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Goniometric Assessment:
 <ul>
 <li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/video/shoulder-internal-rotation-goniometry" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Shoulder Internal Rotation &lt; 70&#xB0;</a></li>
 </ul>
 </li>
 <li>Passive Accessory Movements
 <ul>
 <li>Glenohumeral Joint Stiffness</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<h4>Infraspinatus and Teres Minor Trigger Points :</h4>
<ul>
 <li>Palpation results in tenderness and may result in radiating symptoms.
 <ul>
 <li>&quot;We agree with most other authors that when myofascial pain is referred to the shoulder joint, the infraspinatus, supraspinatus, and sometimes the levator scapulae muscles are its most likely muscular sources (8, 25)&quot;.</li>
 <li>The teres minor does not often result in radiating symptoms down the arm, but rather a very focal referral point over the region of the <a id="posterior" data-tip="1565" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/posterior" class="glossary">posterior</a> deltoid (8).</li>
 </ul>
 </li>
</ul>
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454281-teres-major-trigger-points.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454281-teres-major-trigger-points.jpeg" title="Common trigger points of the teres minor muscle" alt="Teres minor trigger points and location of referred pain down the arm "></a>
Teres Minor <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1634" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">Trigger Points</a> - David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons&#x2019; Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1632" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">Trigger Point</a> Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,&#xA9; 1999 Williams and Wilkens
<a href="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454321-travellsimonsinfraspinatustps.jpeg"><img src="https://www.datocms-assets.com/25800/1644454321-travellsimonsinfraspinatustps.jpeg" title="Common trigger points of the infraspinatus muscle" alt="Infraspinatus Trigger Points"></a>
Infraspinatus <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1634" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">Trigger Points</a> - David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons&#x2019; Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The <a id="trigger-point" data-tip="1632" target="_blank" href="/glossary-term/trigger-point" class="glossary">Trigger Point</a> Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,&#xA9; 1999 Williams and Wilkens

Postural Dysfunction and the External Rotator Cuff Muscles

<h4>Shoulder Mobilization</h4>
<iframe src="https://player.vimeo.com/video/96624950" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe>

Exercises and Techniques for the Infraspinatus and Teres Minor

Chest Out/Thumbs Out

External Rotation Progression at 90° of Flexion with Scapular Stabilization

Deep Cervical Flexor Activation and External Rotator Activation

External Rotator Facilitation Taping

Posterior Shoulder (Self-Administered) Release Technique

Sleeper's Stretch

Modified Sleeper's Stretch (Brookbush Institute preferred method)

Self-administered Shoulder Mobilization

<ol>
 <li>Phillip Page, Clare Frank, Robert Lardner, Assessment and Treatment of Muscle Imbalance: The Janda Approach &copy; 2010 Benchmark Physical Therapy, Inc., Clare C. Frank, and Robert Lardner</li>
 <li>Dr. Mike Clark &amp; Scott Lucette, &ldquo;NASM Essentials of Corrective Exercise Training&rdquo; &copy; 2011 Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins</li>
 <li>Donald A. Neumann, &ldquo;Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System: Foundations of Rehabilitation &ndash; 2nd Edition&rdquo; &copy; 2012 Mosby, Inc.</li>
 <li>Michael A. Clark, Scott C. Lucett, NASM Essentials of Personal Training: 4th Edition, &copy; 2011 Lippincott Williams and Wilkins</li>
 <li>Leon Chaitow, Muscle Energy Techniques: Third Edition, &copy; Elsevier 2007</li>
 <li>Tom Myers, Anatomy Trains: Second Edition. &copy; Elsevier Limited 2009</li>
 <li>Shirley A Sahrmann, Diagnoses and Treatment of Movement Impairment Syndromes, &copy; 2002 Mosby Inc.</li>
 <li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons&rsquo; Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,&copy; 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
 <li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White, Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry &ndash; Third Edition. &copy; 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
 <li>Cynthia C. Norkin, Pamela K. Levangie, Joint Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis: Fifth Edition &copy; 2011 F.A. Davis Company</li>
 <li>Florence Peterson Kendall, Elizabeth Kendall McCreary, Patricia Geise Provance, Mary McIntyre Rodgers, William Anthony Romani, Muscles: Testing and Function with Posture and Pain: Fifth Edition &copy; 2005 Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins</li>
 <li>Karel Lewit. Manipulative Therapy: Musuloskeletal Medicine &copy; 2007 Elsevier</li>
 <li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization &ndash; A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
 <li>Andrew Biel, Trail Guide to the Human Body: 4th Edition, &copy; 2010</li>
 <li>David B. Jenkins, Hollinshead's Functional Anatomy of the Limbs and Back: Eighth Edition &copy; 2002 Saunders</li>
 <li>Inman VT, Saunders JB, Abbot JC, Observatinos on the function of the shoulder joint. J Bone Joint Surg 26:1 - 30, 1944</li>
 <li>Scovazzo, M.L., Browne, A., Pink, M., Jobe, F.W., and Kerrigan, J. (1991). The painful shoulder during freestyle swimming: An electromyographic cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(6). 577-582</li>
 <li>Lawrence, R.L., Braman, J.P., Staker, J.L., Laprade, R.F., Ludewig, P.M. (2014) Comparison of 3-dimensional shoulder complex kinematics in individuals with and without shoulder pain, Part 2: Glenohumeral joint. Journal of Orthopaedic &amp; Sports Physical Therapy 44(9). 646-B3</li>
 <li>Ha, S., Kwon, O., Cynn, H., Lee, W., Kim, S., Park, K. (2013). Selective activation of the infraspinatus muscle. Journal of Athletic Training. 48(3). 346-352</li>
 <li>Reinold MM, Wilk KE, Fleisig GS, Zheng N, Barrentine SW, Chmielewski T, Cody RC, Jameson GG, Andrews JR. Electromyographic Analysis of the Rotator Cuff and Deltoid Musculature During Common Shoulder External Rotation Exercises. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2004 Jul;34(7):385-94</li>
 <li>Tubbs RS, Shoja MM, Shokouhi G, Loukas M, Oakes WJ. Insertion of the pectoralis major into the shoulder joint capsule. Anat Sci Int. 2008 Dec;83(4):291-3</li>
 <li>Wang HK, Cochorane T. 2001. Mobility impairment, muscle imbalance, muscle weakness, scapular asymmetry and shoulder injury in elite volleyball athletes. J Sport Med Phys Fitness 41(3): 403-10</li>
 <li>Jos&eacute; Miota Ibarra, Hong-You Ge, Chao Wang, Vicente Mart&iacute;nez Vizca&iacute;no, Thomas Graven-Nielsen, Lars Arendt-Nielsen. Latent Myofascial Trigger Points are Associated With an Increased Antagonistic Muscle Activity During Agonist Muscle Contraction. The Journal of Pain, Volume 12, Issue 12, December 2011, Pages 1282&ndash;1288</li>
 <li>John V. Basmajian, Carlo J. De Luca. Muscles Alive: Their Function Revealed by ElectroMyography. 1985</li>
 <li>Moccia D, Nackashi AA, Schilling R, Ward PJ. (2016). Fascial bundles of the infraspinatus fascia: anatomy, function, and clinical considerations. Journal of Anatomy. 228: 176-183.</li>
 <li>Chafik D, Galatz LM, Keener JD, Kim HM, Yamaguchi K. (2013). Teres minor muscle and related anatomy. J. Shoulder Elbow Surg. 22: 108-114.</li>
</ol>

Bibliography

© 2015 Brent Brookbush
Questions, comments, and criticisms are welcome and encouraged

Copyright

A-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks darker under a microscope.  This area of the cell is darker due to parallel arrangement of thicker filaments (myosin) and overlap with the thinner filaments (actin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the A-band is where actin and myosin interact.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Accuracy - the proportion of individuals correctly identified by the test results.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, a special test with perfect accuracy would imply a test has 100% specificity, 100% sensitivity, 100% positive predictive value and 100% negative predictive values.</li>
</ul>

Action Potential - A rapid change in voltage, resulting in a wave of excitation, that may result in stimulation of a nerve or muscle cell.
<ul>
 	<li>In order for an action potential to be initiated, the resting membrane voltage must exceed the excitation threshold, which then results in a cascade of depolarization and the "wave of excitation." Any stimulus below that threshold will not result in an action potential, and a stimulus greater than the threshold will not increase a single action potential, but may result in additional action potentials.  In this way, the action potential functions more like an on/off switch (all or none), and less like a dimmer switch.</li>
</ul>

A single-joint movement pattern (most often) designed to load a specific under-active muscle(s), while minimizing the contribution of over-active synergists via specific cues/joint motions.
<ul>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises are performed with the intent of addressing a muscle exhibiting a reduction in activity (tone) as a result of, or contributing to postural dysfunction.</li>
 	<li style="text-align: left;">Activation techniques/exercises cannot be multi-joint movement patterns due to relative flexibility, altered reciprocal inhibition, and synergistic dominance resulting in compensation patterns.</li>
</ul>
Example, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/activation/gluteus-medius-activation-progression/" target="_blank">gluteus medius activation</a> involves resisted hip abduction while minimizing the contribution of the TFL via hip extension.

Active stretching is a term used to describe a stretch that involves an active contraction of opposing musculature to lengthen a muscle to its end range. Generally these stretches are held for 2-5 seconds and repeated for 8-15 repetitions.

Adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase): is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing (initiating and accelerating) the decomposition of ATP to ADP.
<ul>
 	<li>This dephosphorylation (breakdown) reaction releases energy for processes like muscular contraction.</li>
</ul>

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): The molecule that functions as a universal energy-transfer molecule, providing most of the energy associated with muscular contraction and human movement. ATP is composed of an adenine group, a ribose group, and three molecules of inorganic phosphates.
<ul>
 	<li>Energy is provided when hydrolysis results in the cleaving of a phophate group; resulting in adenosine diphosphate, an inorganigic phosphate group, and energy.</li>
</ul>

Algometry - measuring the amount of pressure to result in sensitivity or pain, using an algometer.
<ul>
 	<li>Generally, research uses algometry to establish a minimum pain pressure threshold (PPT), in which a lower PPT implies more sensitivity and pain, and a higher PPT implies less sensitivity and pain. PPT is a common outcome measure in trigger point research.</li>
</ul>
<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-140177" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Algometer.jpg" alt="Image of an Algometer" width="500" height="333" /></a>

All-or-none principle - a nerve or muscle cell's response to a stimulus is independent of the strength of the stimulus. If that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential (threshold of an action potential), the nerve or muscle fiber will respond completely; otherwise, there is no response.

Example, when a motor unit in the biceps brachii is stimulated it contracts the same way whether a 10 lb or 50 lb dumbbell is lifted.  It is actually the number of muscle cells and the size of the motor unit that determines force output.

&nbsp;

The transition period between eccentric load and concentric contraction during a repetition of an exercise.  This term is most often used in reference to power/plyometric exercises, in which a shorter amortization phase is believed to be beneficial.  The shorter amortization phase may better use the stored energy from the elastic deformation of connective tissue and enhance synchronization of myotatic (stretch) reflex with maximum voluntary contraction.

Example, the athlete was cued to spend as little time as possible in the bottom of their squat stance (the amortization phase) during a set of box jumps.

Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.

That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.

Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.

An anatomical direction; toward the front

Example, the face is on the anterior aspect of the head

Appendicular Skeleton - referring to the bones the bones of the arms and legs, as well as the bones that support them. This includes the pelvis, clavicle and scapula. There are approximately 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Appendicular, as in appendage, "that which is appended to something as a proper part," 1640s, from <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/append?ref=etymonline_crossreference">append</a> + <a class="crossreference" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/-age?ref=etymonline_crossreference">-age</a>. - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/appendage" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Appendicular skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/axial-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">axial skeleton</a>".

A reflexive decrease in muscle activity due to joint dyskinesis.
For example, a reduction in deep cervical flexor activity as a result of cervical spine dyskinesis.

Arthrokinematic Motion - Small amplitude motions between bone surfaces at a joint.  The arthrokinematic motions are roll, glide (slide or translation), spin, compression and distraction (traction). Arthrokinematic motions accompany osteokinematic motions to maintain joint congruence.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, arthrokinematic motion of the talus includes posterior glide on the tibia during ankle dorsiflexion.</li>
</ul>
Synonyms include: arthrokinematics, passive accessory motion, joint play and component motion

&nbsp;

Assessment - is the act of assessing, i.e. determining the importance, size, or value of -

In most cases, the results of an assessment are compared to normative data. If the individual exhibits values that are within normal parameters, it may be assumed that the aspect of health or motion assessed is not contributing to the patient's complaint, symptoms or movement impairment. If the results fall outside of normal parameters, it may indicate that the aspect of health or motion assessed is contributing to, or being affected by the patient/client's complaint, symptoms, or movement impairment. In some cases, the results of an assessment are compared to an "ideal model." In this case, deviations from the ideal are noted as potential issues. For example, deviations noted in the <a title="Introduction to the Overhead Squat Assessment" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/online-courses/articles/assessment/introduction-overhead-squat-assessment/" target="_blank">Overhead Squat Assessment</a> are compared to an "ideal model" of posture and motion.

Assessments used by human movement professionals can be divided into three broad categories:
<ul>
 	<li>"Clear" the Patient/Client for Intervention - These are tests, assessments and evaluations used to determine if a patient/client's issue may improve given the assessing professional's scope, skills, abilities and willingness to treat that individual.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, many of the special tests used in orthopedic medicine assist in determining the level of pathology or likelihood of a particular diagnosis. Certain issues and diagnoses are beyond the scope of the human movement professional, and are better treated by diagnostic professionals in the medical community (physicians, podiatrists, surgeons, etc.). A Calf Squeeze (Thompson) Test is one example, in which a positive sign may indicate a rupture of the Achilles tendon that may be better treated via surgical intervention.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Highlight Contraindications - Tests, assessments and evaluations used to stratify risk or preclude a professional from addressing certain tissues, motions or using a particular technique.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, the Vertebral Artery Test (VBI) is often used to determine if high velocity thrust mobilizations (manipulations) are safe for a patient with cervical dysfunction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li>Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection: Tests, assessments and evaluations used to assist the professional in determining which techniques, modalities and exercises will best address a patient/client's complaints or desired goals.
<ul>
 	<li>Most movement assessments fall into this category. For example, a positive <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/elys-test-rectus-femoris-flexibility-assessment/" target="_blank">Ely's Test</a> may indicate a need to release and/or lengthen the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/" target="_blank">rectus femoris</a>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
Note: An assessment, or assessment result, may fall into more than one category. For example, although goniometry is an assessment most often used to Refine Exercise/Intervention Selection, if a range of motion is significantly altered, with an abnormal end-feel, and/or causes the patient or client/pain, the individual may need to be referred to a physician for further testing and Clearance to resume rehab activities.  Further, that same patient may return to the human movement professional with a list of Contraindicated Activities from the physician. - "When in doubt, refer out!"

Axial Skeleton - referring to the bones of the head, neck, trunk and spinal column (does not include pelvis). There are approximately 80 bones in the axial skeleton.
<ul>
 	<li>Etymology - Axial, as in "axis", referring to "imaginary motionless straight line around which a body (such as the Earth) rotates," from Latin axis "axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky" - <a href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/axis" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Etymology Online</a></li>
</ul>
"Axial skeleton" is a label referring to a set of bones whose function is distinct from the bones of the "<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/appendicular-skeleton/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">appendicular skeleton</a>".

Balance - The ability to maintain a body’s center of mass over its base of support. Balance can be static or dynamic.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, maintaining balance is harder on one leg because the center of mass must stay over a much smaller base of support.</li>
</ul>

A ball and socket joint (also called a spheroid joint or spheroidal joint) is a synovial joint in which the rounded or spherical end of one bone fits into a cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. Examples include the hip and shoulder (glenohumeral joint)

Base of support (BoS) - refers to the area beneath an object or person, and the area within the perimeter created by every point of contact that the object or person makes with the supporting surface. This may include the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">glutes</a> of someone sitting on a chair, or the back of someone leaning against a wall.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, during a single leg balance the BoS is the area of the foot in contact with the surface; however, when a person is standing on two feet, the BoS is the area of both feet and the surface between them.</li>
</ul>

Pertaining to both sides

Example, bilateral rows are performed with both arms at the same time.

Case-control Study - a particular form of retrospective study that samples a matched group of people who have, and do not have the outcome being studied. A case-control study is a quasi-experimental design, often used in medicine to aid in determining potential contributing factors (cannot determine causality). In this study type exposure is the dependent variable and outcome is independent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in this retrospective case-control, medical records were investigated for trends correlated with cervical pain (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Mäkela, M., Heliövaara, M., Sievers, K., Impivaara, O., Knekt, P., &amp; Aromaa, A. (1991). Prevalence, determinants, and consequences of chronic neck pain in Finland. American journal of epidemiology, 134(11), 1356-1367.</li>
</ol>
</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the tail, relative to humans this term is often used to refer to "in the direction of the tale (toward the feet)".

Example, to release the trapezius muscle the therapist used a force directed caudally.

Center of mass (CoM) - an object's mean position of mass; that is, a point that is perfectly surrounded by an equal amount mass in all directions.

Center of gravity (CoG) - point where gravity appears to act. Since the human body is so small compared to the earth, we can assume gravity acts uniformly on the body, and that CoG and CoM are the same.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the CoM of the human body while lying down or standing straight up is close to our navel. However, it is possible that during a resistance exercise, the combination of the body's weight and the weight of the resistance will place the combined CoM outside the body. For example, during the mid-portion of a <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/back-squat/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">back squat</a> the CoM would be several anterior to the naval.</li>
</ul>

An anatomical direction; toward the head (synonym: cranial)

Example, hip pain was felt with any force directed cephalad.

Cohort Study - a particular form of longitudinal study that samples a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic), performing a cross-section at intervals through-out a period of time. A cohort study is a quasi-experimental design often used in medicine to aid in determining etiology or a cause-and-effect relationship. In this study type exposure is the independent variable and outcome is dependent.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Cholewicki et al. (1) investigated Yale Varsity Athletes (the cohort) with 2 and 3 year follow up (longitudinal design) and found that trunk muscle response time to off-loading was predictive of future low back injury.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/core/increased-trunk-muscle-latency-may-cause-rather-than-result-from-low-back-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cholewicki, J., Silfies, S., Shah, R., Greene, H., Reeves, N. Alvi, K., Goldberg, B. (2005). Delayed trunk muscle reflex responses increase the risk of low back injuries. Spine. 30(23), 2614-2620</a></li>
</ol>

Comparable Sign: A combination of pain, stiffness and/or spasm during examination that is comparable to the patients symptoms.
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

An alternative movement pattern that has been adopted to compensate for dysfunction/impairment in the human movement system.
Example: A lack of calf extensibility may limit dorsiflexion, leading to the knees bowing inward (functional valgus) and excessive forward lean of the torso during a squat.

An arthrokinematic motion - the approximation of joint surfaces; that is, a force that directs one bone surface into another resulting in a reduction in intra-articular volume. Although widely thought of as a "destructive force", it is likely best to consider compression as a naturally occurring, stabilizing force. Any arthrokinematic force in excess (spin, glide, roll, traction) may be viewed as potentially deleterious.

For example, during a squat the femoral head is compressed into the acetabulum by muscular forces, bodyweight and any additional external load.

Concave (Concavity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the interior surface of a bowl or sphere - to cave-in or curve inward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the internal surfaces of the pelvis is concave, holding some of the bodies viscera.</li>
</ul>

Concordant Sign - The patient's specific pain, symptom or complaint. 
<ul>
 	<li>One common error made during evaluation with special tests is attention given to any discomfort or pain, rather than attempting to identify the pain/discomfort related to the patient's complaint (concordant/comparable sign). Many special tests purposefully test tissue limits and are at least mildly uncomfortable in every individual. Basing your assessment on positive tests that resulted in "concordant/comparable signs" will improve your chances of arriving at the correct diagnosis.</li>
</ul>

Conductivity: Stimulation results in more than a local effect (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, in a muscle cell the stimulation of a motor endplate results in a change in cell membrane polarity that rapidly propagates (is conducted) along the entire length of the muscle cell, stimulating all sacromere.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

A condyloid joint (also called condylar, bicondylar, ellipsoid, or ellipsoidal) is an ovoid articular surface, or condyle, that is received into an elliptical cavity.  These joints permit movement in two planes.  Examples include the knee, metacarpophalangeal joints and metatarsophalangeal joints.

Connective Tissue Cell - One of the four basic types of animal tissue, consisting mostly fibers and ground substance.  These cells are specialized to binds organs together, holds them in place, protect them from external forces, and may fill space in the body's cavities.

Example, the body's muscles are enclosed in durable connective tissue sheets known as the "epimysium", "perimysium", and "endomysium," which and in support and transmitting force.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Contractility: The ability to shorten (1).
<ul>
 	<li>Contractility: Muscle cells are unique in the amount they can shorten when stimulated; this is this largerly due to the highly organized and unique arrangement of myofilaments (actin and myosin).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Pertaining to the opposite side

Example, the external oblique muscle performs contralateral rotation; rotation to the opposite side.

Convex (Convexity) - Having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere - to bulge or curve outward.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the top of your head is shaped by the convex exterior surface of your skull.</li>
</ul>

Correlational Research - Non-experimental <a href="https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-research/">research</a> method in which the statistical relationship between two variables is investigated.
<ul>
 	<li>In this research by Kwon et al., a correlation was noted between a decrease in extensibility during a hamstring length test (goniometry) and current knee pain (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/correlation-patellofemoral-pain-syndrome-pfps-hamstring-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kwon O, Yun M, and Lee W. (2014). Correlation between intrinsic patellofemoral pain syndrome in young adults and lower extremity biomechanics. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 26: 961-964</a></li>
</ol>

Counter-nutation - posterior rotation of sacrum relative to ilium, and/or anterior rotation of ilium relative to sacrum.
<ul>
 	<li>The pelvic floor muscles are examples of muscle that may counter-nutate the sacrum.</li>
</ul>
[caption id="attachment_126335" align="aligncenter" width="400"]<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png"><img class=" wp-image-126335" src="https://brentbrookbush.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Nutation.png" alt="Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint" width="400" height="967" /></a> Nutation and Counter-nutation of the Sacroiliac Joint[/caption]

&nbsp;

Crossover (Study) Design - A type of longitudinal, repeated measures quasi-experimental design in which each group receives both treatments, but at different times. It is named "crossover" due to the patients "crossing-over" to the other treatment or sham group after a specified period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>This type of study has the advantage of every individual serving as their own control, which may reduce the influence of confounding variables.</li>
 	<li>Unfortunately, the design itself introduces the chances that anyone receiving the experimental variable in the first period will continue to be effected in the second period.</li>
</ul>
In a study by Senna et al., a cross-over design was used to investigate the difference load made on inter-set rest intervals (1).
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/strength-training-research-corner/heavy-vs-light-load-single-joint-exercise-performance-with-different-rest-periods/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Senna, G.W., Rodrigues, B.M., Sandy, Scudese, Bianco, A, &amp; Dantas, E.H.M. (2017). Heavy vs light load single-joint exercise performance with different intervals. Journal of Human Kinetics, 58, 197-206. </a></li>
</ol>

Cross-sectional Study - a research design that involves gathering data from a population or representative subset at a specific point in time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Karimi-Mobarake et al.(1) investigated the prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum among school children 7-11 years old in Iran.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/low-prevalence-of-genu-varum-and-valgum-among-elementary-school-children/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karimi-Mobarake, M., Kashefipour, A., Yousfnejad, Z. The prevalence of genu varum and genu valgum in primary school children in Iran 2003-2004. (2005) Journal of Medical Science 5(1). 52-54</a></li>
</ol>

Cytokine - A broad and loose category of small proteins that act through receptors, and are especially important to immune function (inflammation).
<ul>
 	<li>Cytokines include substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Their definite distinction from hormones is a topic of continued research.</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Dependent variable - in research, this is the variable that is changed by the independent variable, most often this is the "outcome" of the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Cleland et al. (1), the independent variable is "thoracic manipulation," and the dependent variable is "lower trapezius muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/short-term-effects-lower-thoracic-manipulation-lower-trapezius-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cleland J, Selleck B, Stowell T, Brown L, Alberini S, St. Cyr H, Caron T. Short-term Effects of Thoracic Manipulation on Lower Trapezius Muscle Strength.  Journal of Manual &amp; Manipulative Therapy. 2004; 12(2): 82-90</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the trunk or center of the body

Example, the foot is at the distal end of the leg.

An arthrokinematic motion - a force applied to a body part that may result in the separation of joint surfaces, a reduction in intra-articular pressure, and/or an increase in intra-articlar space.

For example, to hang from one's hands (i.g. in preparation for a pull-up) results in a traction force on the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

An anatomical term of location; back or upper surface

Example, shoe laces may compress tissues on the dorsal surface of the foot

The "drawing-in" maneuver is a common cue used during exercise and rehabilitation programs. A light contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abominis</a> (and potentially the entire <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/corrective-exercise-articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>) achieved by gently pulling the lower abdominal region away from one's waist band. This should have minimal effect on breathing, and should not be confused with a maximal contraction of the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/transverse-abdominis/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">transverse abdominis</a> resulting in a "vacuum pose".
<ul>
 	<li>Research often refers to this maneuver as the "abdominal drawing-in maneuver"; abbreviated ADIM.</li>
</ul>
Development and introduction of this cue into practice is based on the pivotal research and resulting text:
<ol>
 	<li>Carolyn Richardson, Paul Hodges, Julie Hides. Therapeutic Exercise for Lumbo Pelvic Stabilization – A Motor Control Approach for the Treatment and Prevention of Low Back Pain: 2nd Edition (c) Elsevier Limited, 2004</li>
</ol>

Faulty or abnormal movement; an alteration of normal kinematics.

For example, joint stiffness or a reduction in arthrokinematics motion that results in limited osteokinematic range of motion - inadequate inferior glide of the femoral head resulting in limited abduction of the hip.

The seeping into, or abnormal collection of fluid in a body cavity.

For example, knee effusion describes swelling within the knee joint.

Note: the word "effusion" is used differently in medicine than it is used in reference to the movement (seeping out) of liquids and gases, for example in chemistry.

&nbsp;

A trait of body tissues that allows a tissue to return to its resting length or state after deformation or stretch.
Example:  Muscle is elastic tissue; many muscles will return to their resting length after being stretched to 150% of that length without any appreciable change in tissue quality.

Elasticity: Elasticity refers to the ability of a cell to return to its resting length after being stretched/lengthened.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: this term is often confused with extensibility. Elasticity is not the ability to stretch; it is the ability to return to normal length after being stretched. Muscle tissue, connective tissue and even nerve tissue have varying levels of elasticity.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Epithelial cell - One of the four basic cell types, found lining the body's cavities, blood vessels, organs and constitutes most gland tissue.  These cells are specialized to aid with absorption, secretion, or act as a barrier from foreign objects.
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. S., &amp; Miller, L. (1998). Anatomy &amp; physiology. New York (NY): WCB/McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Equilibrium - a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
<ul>
 	<li>For example, to maintain a neutral trunk while pushing or pulling a weight in one hand, your core musculature must balance the force by creating an equal amount of force in the opposite direction.</li>
</ul>

The study of causation, or origination. The word is commonly used in the medical professions, where it may refer to the study of why things occur, or the reason behind why things act a certain way.

For example, the etiology of low back pain is a complex subject, with multiple contributing factors and various structures implicated.

<div class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Evidence-based medicine (practice) is the integration of best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient(client) values (2)."</div>
<ul>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">...the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients (clients).  It involves the integration of at least (a) clinical expertise/expert opinion, (b) external scientific evidence, and (c) client/patient/caregiver perspectives to provide high-quality services reflecting the interests, values, needs, and choices of the individuals we serve (1).</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M., Gray, J. M., Haynes, R. B., &amp; Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. Bmj, 312(7023), 71-72.</li>
 	<li class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Sackett D et al. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM, 2nd edition. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 2000, p.1</li>
</ol>

Excitability: The ability of a cell to change in membrane conductance as a response to stimulation.

<ul>
 	<li>For example, muscle cells are specialized to react to a change in membrane potential with contraction, where as nerve cells are specialized to propagate a change in membrane potential along there axons and communicate that message to other tissues via neurotransmitters.
</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

Excitation threshold: The level that a depolarization must reach for an action potential to occur.
<ul>
 	<li>The excitation threshold is a contributing factor to the "all-or-none" response of muscle and nerves cells to a stimulus.</li>
</ul>

Exercise Progression - Modification of an exercise with the intent of promoting adaptation by increasing demand. This can be accomplished by increasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise progression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise, or series of exercises that make it harder to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Progression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Exercise regression - The opposite of progression; that is, modification of an exercise with the intent of reducing demand. This can be accomplished by decreasing reps, load, tempo, range of motion, complexity, and/or challenge to an individual's stability. Generally, regressions are used to modify an exercise to the client's current level of ability, with the intent of improving form, motor learning and retention.
<ul>
 	<li>Because load, reps, tempo and complexity are often explicitly noted, the term "exercise regression" is most often used throughout Brookbush Institute (BI) content to refer to an exercise or series of exercises that make it easier to maintain stability with good form.
<ul>
 	<li>Sample Exercise Regression: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/single-leg-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Single-leg Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/static-standing-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Standing Chop</a> to <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/kneeling-chop-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kneeling Chop</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>

Experimental Research - Studies in which the researchers introduce the variable to be studied, with the intent of observing the outcome. This is different than observational research which observes the effect of a variable already present. Many texts also assert that experimental research should include randomization and ideally a control group, as is seen in Randomized Control Trials. Studies in which the variable is introduced by the researchers, but participants are not randomized may be considered Quasi-experimental research.
<ul>
 	<li>In this study by Esformes, the experimental variable was squat depth and the outcome measures observed were various performance measures related to power (1).</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brookbushinstitute.com/article/back-squat-depth-lower-body-post-activation-potentiation/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Esformes, J., &amp; Bampouras, T. (2013). Effect of back squat depth on lower-body postactivation potentiation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(11), 2997-3000.</a></li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Extensibility: The ability of a cell to be stretched or lengthened without damage (1).
<ul>
 	<li>For example, most cells would rupture with even a modest stretch, but muscles can stretch up to 3 times their contracted length.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy &amp; Physiology: The unity of form and function. (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.</li>
</ol>

False Negative - the proportion of negatives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as negative when the patient was actually positive)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

False Positive - the proportion of positives in a group that were assessed incorrectly (assessed as positive when the patient was actually negative)
<ul>
 	<li>Test Results: Although most tests/assessments result in either a positive or negative, the accuracy of a test is dependent on the number  of positives and negatives that are correct. Therefore, when the accuracy of a test is determined, their are 4 possible results, because a positive or negative result could be right (true) or wrong (false).</li>
</ul>

The function of fascia is to transmit force, provide support, and protect tissues. Fascia can effect motion by:
Transmitting force from one or more muscles (example: the thoracolumbar fascia)
Restricting motion in cases of adaptive shortening and/or adhesion to proximal structures (example: iliotibial band in cases of lower-leg dysfunction)
Elastic recoil after stretching can contribute to force production (example: plyometric exercise)

Note: There is evidence that fascia may house more receptors related to human movement than other tissues. In this way fascia may act as a motherboard for the nervous system

The fascial system does not contract or develop trigger points, and its capacity to adapt to stretching and or strengthening exercise is limited, especially when compared to the adaptive capacity of muscle tissue.

Fibromyalgia - A loosely defined diagnosis that is associated with a combination of widespread pain in combination with 2) tenderness at 11 or more of the 18 specific tender point sites. Consideration may also be given to the presence of psychosocial stressors and inflammatory disease in the patients history. Newer research suggests that fibromyalgia may be at least in part due to central sensitization of myofascial pain, often associated with trigger points (1 - 4).
<ol>
 	<li>Wolfe, F. (2018). Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome Criteria: Problems in Definition and Validity. Fibromyalgia Syndrome and Widespread Pain: From Construction to Relevant Recognition.</li>
 	<li>Wolfe, F., Smythe, H. A., Yunus, M. B., Bennett, R. M., Bombardier, C., Goldenberg, D. L., ... &amp; Fam, A. G. (1990). The American College of Rheumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of fibromyalgia. Arthritis &amp; Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology, 33(2), 160-172.</li>
 	<li>Alonso-Blanco, C., Fernandez-de-las-Penas, C., Morales-Cabezas, M., Zarco-Moreno, P., Ge, H. Y., &amp; Florez-García, M. (2011). Multiple active myofascial trigger points reproduce the overall spontaneous pain pattern in women with fibromyalgia and are related to widespread mechanical hypersensitivity. The Clinical journal of pain, 27(5), 405-413.</li>
 	<li>Staud, R., Nagel, S., Robinson, M. E., &amp; Price, D. D. (2009). Enhanced central pain processing of fibromyalgia patients is maintained by muscle afferent input: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. PAIN®, 145(1-2), 96-104.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.
Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.

An increase in joint stability via compressive forces resulting from muscular contraction and increased tension in fascial structures (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to core intrinsic stabilizers, the thoracolumbar fascia and the sacroiliac joint; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Form closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

The relative contribution of joint shape and structure to the stability of a joint (1,2).
<ul>
 	<li>This term is most often used in reference to the "rough" articulating surfaces of the sacroiliac joint and the wedge shape of the sacrum; however, force closure and form closure have been mentioned in the literature referring to other joints.</li>
 	<li>Related term: Force closure</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Andry Vleeming, Vert Mooney, Rob Stoeckart. Movement, Stability &amp; Lumbopelvic Pain: <a class="glossaryLink " title="Glossary: Integration" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/integration/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Integration&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class=glossaryItemBody&gt;Making a whole of parts.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.&lt;/div&gt;">Integration</a> of Research and Therapy. (c) 2007 Elsevier Limited</li>
 	<li id="gs_cit1" class="gs_citr" tabindex="0">Vleeming, A., Pool-Goudzwaard, A. L., Stoeckart, R., van Wingerden, J. P., &amp; Snijders, C. J. (1995). The Posterior Layer of the Thoracolumbar Fascia| Its Function in Load Transfer From Spine to Legs. Spine, 20(7), 753-758.</li>
</ol>

An arthrokinematic motion - linear motion across a joint surface parallel to the plane of the adjacent joint surface, just as your posterior moves relative to a "slide" in a park.

For example, the glide of facet joint in the spine during spinal flexion and extension, or the posterior glide of the humeral head that must accompany anterior roll to maintain congruence with glenoid fossa during shoulder horizontal adduction.

A plane joint (also called an arthrodial joint, gliding joint or plane articulation) is a synovial joint which allows only gliding movement in the plane of the articular surfaces. The opposed surfaces of the bones are flat or almost flat, with movement generally limited by tight capsules and ligaments. Plane joints are numerous, are most often small, and allow very little motion.  Examples include the carpal joints of the wrist, the tarsal joints of the ankle, and the facet joints of the spine.

"...refers to the measurement of angles, in particular the measurement of angles created at human joints by the bones of the body (1).

&nbsp;
<ol>
 	<li>Cynthia C. Norkin, D. Joyce White. Measurement of Joint Motion: A Guide to Goniometry 3rd Edition. Copyright (C) 2003 by F.A. Davis Company</li>
</ol>

Ground reaction force (GRF) - The force exerted by the ground on the body in contact with it.

For example, when a runner's foot strikes the ground with a force equal to the mass of the individual times their acceleration due to gravity, momentum and muscular exertion, the ground exerts an equal and opposite force on the runner's foot.
<ul>
 	<li>GRF is often measured in research studies using force plates as a means of quantitatively measuring the force generated by an individual.</li>
</ul>

H-Band - Refers to the central zone of a sarcomere that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the sarcomere is a lighter portion of the A-band where there is no overlap between the thinner filaments (actin), and the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>Example, when a muscle contracts, actin and myosin cross-bridging occurs in the region of the A-band until the H-band is reached where no overlap occurs.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

A hinge joint (also called a ginglymus) is a synovial joint in which the articular surfaces fit one another in a way that only permits motion in one plane. Examples include the elbow, the knee (unless considered a condyloid joint) and the interphalangeal joints.

Holism (holistic) (biological holism) - (from Greek holos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that systems and their properties should be viewed as wholes, not just as a collection of parts.
<ul>
 	<li>Summarized by Aristotle in his "Metaphysics": "The whole is more than the sum of its parts". However, the term "holism" was introduced into language by the South African statesman Jan Smuts as recently as 1926. (Smuts J. C. 1987 [1926]. Holism and evolution. Cape Town: N &amp; S Press.)</li>
</ul>
Example: The Brookbush Institute promotes a holistic approach to human movement science, in which the muscular, fascial, articular and neural systems are not viewed as separable and all proximal segments are considered.

Hormone: Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine system, transported via tissue fluids such as blood, to stimulate cells to "act."
<ul>
 	<li>Example: Growth hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain; stimulating growth, cell reproduction and cell regeneration in certain types of cells</li>
</ul>
The English physician E. H. Starling discovered in collaboration with the physiologist W. M. Bayliss secretin, the first hormone, in 1902. (1).
<ol>
 	<li>Henriksen, J. H., &amp; de Muckadell, O. S. (2000). Secretin, its discovery, and the introduction of the hormone concept. Scandinavian journal of clinical and laboratory investigation, 60(6), 463-472.</li>
</ol>

A range of motion achieved by the patient/client that is more than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If an individual can place their forehead on their knees they are likely hypermobile at one, if not several joints

Example 2: 110° of shoulder external rotation would be considered hyper-mobile.

Hyperplasia is an increase in organic tissue size due to an adaptive increase in the number of cells per organ.
<ul>
 	<li>Although muscle hyperplasia has been noted in some animals, human muscle tissue does not seem to have this adaptive ability.</li>
</ul>

A condition of excessive tone of the skeletal muscles; increased resistance of muscle to passive stretching.  May be related to increased neural drive, synergistic dominance, trigger points, reflexive over-activity, and/or muscle length.
Example:  Individuals who exhibit ankle eversion and abduction during an overhead squat assessment likely have hypertonic fibularis (peroneal) muscles.

Muscular hypertrophy is an increase in muscle mass/size due to increase in the volume and cross-sectional area (CSA) of individual muscle cells. The increase in cross-sectional area can be attributed to an an increase in contractile proteins and structural elements (myofibrillar hypertophy), as well as an increase in glycogen storage and elements related to metabolism (sarcoplasmic hypertophy). Hypertrophy is an adaptation of both cardiac and skeletal muscle fibers in response to progressive increases in workload.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Hypertrophy is not hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is an increase in muscle size due to an adaptive increase in the number of muscle fibers/cells per muscle. This type of adaptation does not occur in human muscle tissue.</li>
</ul>

A range of motion achieved by a patient/client that is less than normal.
<ul>
 	<li>Note: Both hyper-mobility and hypo-mobility may adversely affect motion and may lead to deleterious effects on joints and soft tissue over time. There is no evidence to suggest that more or less flexibility than normal is beneficial.</li>
</ul>
Example: If the end range of shoulder external rotation is reached and measured as 75° during goniometric assessment, the client/patient is exhibiting hypomobility of the glenohumeral joint (shoulder).

Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for a phenomenon; "scientific hypotheses" are generally constructed in a way that is testable or falsifiable.
<ul>
 	<li>Example: The hypothesis, "excessive knee valgus may be correlated with future knee pain and injury," has been the subject of several studies published over the last decade.</li>
</ul>

Diminished tone of skeletal muscles; diminished resistance of muscles to passive stretching.   May be related to inhibition, reciprocal inhibition, arthrokinematics inhibition and/or  increased resting length of muscle.
Example:  If your knees cave (hip adduction) during a squat or leg-press it is likely that your gluteus medius is hypotonic.

I-Band - Refers to the part of the muscle cell that looks lighter under a microscope.  This area of the cell is lighter due to parallel arrangement of thinner filaments (actin), and no overlap with the thicker filaments (myosin).
<ul>
 	<li>As a muscle contracts, the I-bands will decrease in width and move closer to one another.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Saladin, K. (2014). Anatomy &amp; physiology: The unity of form and function. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York. ISBN: 9780073403717</li>
</ol>

Independent variable - in research, this is the variable or phenomenon being manipulated in the study.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, in the study by Ghanbari et al. (1), the independent variable is "knee joint mobilization", the dependent variable is "quadriceps muscle strength."</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/effect-knee-joint-mobilization-quadriceps-muscle-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ghanbari A. and Kamalgharibi S. (2013). Effect of knee joint mobilization on quadriceps muscle strength. International Journal of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences. 2(4): 186-191</a></li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; toward the bottom (below)

Example, the mouth is inferior to the eyes

A reduction in neural drive, muscular activity, and or force output due to altered neuromuscular reflex.  Alterations in neuromuscular reflex may occur due to increases in muscle length (hypothesis: increased excitation threshold), altered reciprocal inhibition in response to increased antagonist tone, and or alterations in joint motion (arthrokinematics inhibition).

Making a whole of parts.

Example, The Brookbush Institute uses an integrative approach to explaining and addressing human movement.

Intermuscular Coordination - Optimal timing and motor unit recruitment of agonists, antagonists, synergists, neutralizers, stabilizers and fixators.

Example: Role of Muscles during Hip Extension
<ul>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Prime Mover" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/prime-mover/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Prime Mover&lt;/div&gt;The muscle most responsible for a joint action under load -&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, the muscle that can produce the most force for a given joint action. Often this term is used synonymously with the term agonist. The prime mover as defined above, may or may not be the most active muscle for a joint action during activities of daily living.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: the gluteus maximus is the most powerful hip extensor and therefore the prime mover; however, the hamstrings are likely the most active hip extensors during low level activities like walking or standing.">Prime Mover</a>:  <a href="https://player.vimeo.com/external/82855344.hd.mp4?s=54c3e7d98fb9d4e0af8d282c85ba9b3e">Gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Synergists" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/synergists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Synergists&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that assist the prime mover in performing a joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all muscles that can perform a joint action that are not the prime mover, are termed synergists.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The rectus abdominis is the prime mover of spinal flexion. All other muscles that can perform spinal flexion are synergists including – external obliques, internal obliques and psoas.">Synergists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/biceps-femoris/">Biceps femoris (long head)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/semitendinosus-and-semimembranosus/">semitendinosus, semimembranosus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">posterior head of adductor magnus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Antagonist" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/antagonists/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Antagonist&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose the prime mover and synergists for a given joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;That is, all the muscles that can perform the opposing joint action.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Example: The triceps and anconeus are antagonists during elbow flexion.">Antagonists</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/psoas/">Psoas</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/iliacus/">iliacus</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/tensor-fascia-latae-tfl/">tensor fascia latae</a> (TFL),<a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-femoris/"> rectus femoris</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/adductors/">anterior adductors (especially pectineus)</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/sartorius/">sartorius</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Neutralizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/neutralizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Neutralizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that oppose unwanted joint motions created by the prime mover and/or synergists, and/or muscles that prevent unwanted ancillary motion.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The teres minor and infraspinatus neutralize the internal rotation force created by the pectoralis major during horizontal adduction of the shoulder.">Neutralizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-minimus/">Gluteus minimus</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-medius/">anterior fibers of gluteus medius</a> neutralize external rotation force of <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/gluteus-maximus/">gluteus maximus</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Stabilizer" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/stabilizers/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Stabilizer&lt;/div&gt;Muscles whose primary role is to improve arthrokinematics by maintaining optimal alignment of joint surfaces.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Most often these muscles are the most intrinsic muscles of a joint, have a larger percentage of Type I muscle fibers and are rich in proprioceptors.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the rotator cuff act as stabilizers for most shoulder motions.">Stabilizers</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/deep-rotators-of-the-hip/">Deep rotators of hip</a></li>
 	<li><a class="glossaryLink " style="box-sizing: border-box; font-family: roboto; color: #000000 !important; font-size: 15px; outline: none; background: transparent; border-bottom: 1px dotted #000000 !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary: Fixator" href="https://brentbrookbush.com/glossary/fixators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-cmtooltip="&lt;div class=glossaryItemTitle&gt;Fixator&lt;/div&gt;Muscles that act to reduce or prevent movement at proximal joints to improve force transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Example: The muscles of the core are important fixators; reducing motion of the spine/trunk to enhance force transmission between the extremities and environment.">Fixators</a>: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/core-subsystems/intrinsic-stabilization-subsystem/">Intrinsic stabilization subsystem</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/rectus-abdominis/">rectus abdominis</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/internal-obliques/">internal</a> and <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/external-obliques/">external obliques</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/quadratus-lumborum/">quadratus lumborum</a>, <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/muscular-anatomy/erector-spinae/">erector spinae</a></li>
</ul>
&nbsp;

Example from: <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/anatomy-articles/introduction-to-functional-anatomy/kinesiology-of-the-hip/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Introduction to Functional Anatomy: Kinesiology of the Hip</a>

Intramuscular coordination refers to the coordinated recruitment of motor units within a single muscle. This concept is used to explain increases in maximal strength and power; however, the coordinated and sequential recruitment of motor units is also essential to strength endurance and smooth coordinated motion.  Related terminology may include; motor unit recruitment, preferential recruitment, rate coding, sequence, etc..

Example: It is hypothesized that the "shaking" noted during a novice exercisers attempt at an activity like the <a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/vimeo_videos/ball-crunch-and-progressions/" target="_blank">stability ball crunch</a> may be due to relatively poor intramuscular coordination. Rather than smooth, sequential firing of rectus abdominis motor units, groups of motor units turn on and off in an uncoordinated manner.

Pertaining to the same side

Example, the quadratus lumborum performs ipsilateral flexion; lateral flexion toward the same side as the muscle.

An isoform, or variant, is a member of a set of similar proteins, that originate from the same gene, or gene family.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the variations in myosin heavy chain proteins (MHC I, MHC IIA, MHC IIB/X) that contribute to the characteristic differences between muscle fiber types.</li>
</ul>

“The Prime Assumption”
Everything crossing a joint will influence joint motion during every joint action.

A concept that has expanded over the past several decades to describe the integration of 4 body systems (muscle, joints, fascia and nerves), as well as, the coordinated function of various body segments (e.g. hip, knee and ankle) to produce motion. Kinetic referring to motion, and chain being an analogy for the interdependent link between systems.

Example, the posterior kinetic chain, refers to the integrated function of nerves, muscles, fascia and joints on the posterior side of the body.

The concept of the kinetic chain was originally adapted from the work of a mechanical engineer named Franz Reuleaux (Kinematics of Machinery (1875)) by Dr. Arthur Steindler in 1955 (Steindler A: Kinesiology of the Human Body. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas Co.. 1955).

Latent Trigger Point - A myofascial trigger point that is not painful at rest, only painful when palpated, and may or may not exhibit a characteristic referral pain pattern when palpated.  Latent trigger points do result in an acute point of sensitivity, in a taut band of muscle, and may restrict range of motion (1).

Note: Based on the clinical experience, the Brookbush Institute suggests that latent trigger points (sometimes refereed to as Tender Points) are more common than active trigger points. Further, they are likely addressed more often than trigger points; being the intended target of many soft-tissue mobility techniques.
<ol>
 	<li>David G. Simons, Janet Travell, Lois S. Simons, Travell &amp; Simmons’ Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, The Trigger Point Manual, Volume 1. Upper Half of Body: Second Edition,© 1999 Williams and Wilkens</li>
</ol>

An anatomical direction; further from the midline

Example, the anterior deltoid is lateral to the pectoralis major

Length/Tension Relationship - The amount of force generated by a muscle is dependent on sarcomere length.
<ul>
 	<li>The ability of sarcomere to maximally produce force occurs when sarcomere length results in optimal overlap between actin and myosin. Stretching a sarcomere decreases overlap between actin and myosin filaments and reduces force production (1-3). When length is less than optimal, actin from opposite ends overlap and interfere with cross-bridging, and myosin filament are compressed as they contact the the Z-disk also reducing force (4)</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Gordon, A. M., Huxley, A. F., &amp; Julian, F. J. (1966). The variation in isometric tension with sarcomere length in vertebrate muscle fibres. The Journal of physiology, 184(1), 170-192.</li>
 	<li>Edman, K. A. P. (1966). The relation between sarcomere length and active tension in isolated semitendinosus fibres of the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 183(2), 407-417.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L., Loren, G. J., &amp; Friden, J. (1994). In vivo measurement of human wrist extensor muscle sarcomere length changes. Journal of neurophysiology, 71(3), 874-881.</li>
 	<li>Lieber, R. L. (2002). Skeletal muscle structure, function, and plasticity. Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins.</li>
</ol>
&nbsp;

Levels of Evidence - Relative to evidence-based practice, levels of evidence are an attempt to describe the strength of the results measured in a clinical trial or research study.  Note: levels of evidence do not supersede the critical evaluation of an experienced professional, and should be viewed as guidelines - a meta-analysis may be poorly constructed (Level IA), and a comparative study (Level III) may employ new technologies and a strong methodology.


The Levels of Evidence used by the Brookbush Institute, as described by Shekelle et al.(1):
<ul>
 	<li class="p1">IA - Evidence from meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials</li>
 	<li class="p1">IB - Evidence from at least one randomized controlled trial</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIA - Evidence from at least one controlled study without randomization</li>
 	<li class="p1">IIB - Evidence from at least one other type of quasi-experimental study</li>
 	<li class="p1">III - Evidence from non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case-control studies</li>
 	<li class="p1">IV - Evidence from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities, or both</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li>Shekelle, P. G., Woolf, S. H., Eccles, M., &amp; Grimshaw, J. (1999). Developing clinical guidelines. Western Journal of Medicine, 170(6), 348.</li>
</ol>

Likelihood Ratios - Likilihood ratios are used for assessing the value of performing a diagnostic test. They use sensitivity and specificity to determine whether a test result usefully changes the practitioner's chance (probability) of reaching the correct assessment. Calculation of likelihood ratios is based on Baye's theorem.
<ul>
 	<li>Positive Likelihood Ratio (LR+) - The ratio of a positive test result in people with the pathology to a positive test result in people without the pathology.</li>
 	<li>Negative Likelihood Ratio (LR-) - The ratio of a negative test result in people with the pathology to a negative test result in people without the pathology.</li>
</ul>

Longitudinal Study - a research design that involves observing the same variables, several times over a period of time.
<ul>
 	<li>Example, the study by Hewett et al. (1) is a type of longitudinal study called a "cohort study." This study investigated whether excessive knee valgus during landing was a predictor of knee injury risk in adolescent females over the course of a season.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
 	<li><a href="https://brentbrookbush.com/articles/research-corner/knee/research-review-increased-valgus-during-landing-predicts-acl-injury-in-adolescent-female-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Hewett, T. E., Myer, G. D., Ford, K. R., Heidt, R. S., Colosimo, A. J., McLean, S. G., &amp; Succop, P. (2005). Biomechanical measures of neuromuscular control and valgus loading of the knee predict anterior cruciate ligament injury risk in female athletes A prospective study. The American journal of sports medicine, 33(4), 492-501</a></li>
</ol>

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